M16a
Paul’s Early Letters
Grouping the letters of the New Testament into manageable clusters is common practice in introductory books because it avoids allocating a chapter to every letter, which vary greatly in size. In keeping with the convenience of common practice, Paul’s letters are grouped into the following clusters: “Earliest Letters,” “Major Letters,” and “Prison Letters.” While these categories are general, they may not be accurate.
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Three of Paul’s writings can be placed within the category of “Earliest Letters”: 1, 2 Thessalonians and Galatians, though not without caveats. The inclusion of 2 Thessalonians among the “Earliest Letters” is contingent on its authorship, which is frequently contested. If Paul did not write it, then it technically does not belong in the cluster. The dating of Galatians is also problematic because we are not entirely sure if Paul composed the letter during his first missionary journey or his second.
Nevertheless, categorizing the earliest writings is helpful for tracing the chronology of Paul’s journeys, his missionary strategy, and the development of his theology. If these are the earliest letters, then they express some of Paul’s initial beliefs about the significance of Jesus’ death and resurrection. Since the letters are not narratives that look back at Jesus’ ministry in story form, but rather are direct responses to the problems facing the early churches, they reflect the beliefs of what scholars have called the oral stage of Christian development. The study of the origins of Christianity begins with these letters, not with Matthew or Luke, despite their narration of Jesus’ birth and their prior placement in the New Testament canon.
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1 Thessalonians
Introduction
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Of the three “Earliest Letters,” 1 Thessalonians has the distinction of being called the earliest surviving Christian writing, though it probably is not the first Christian writing ever written. There were probably writings that predated it, which are no longer extant, such as the sayings of Jesus in Q and earlier letters of Paul (e.g. 1 Cor 5:9). In Paul’s first letter to the church in Thessalonica, which he founded, we are able to get a glimpse into both the life of an early Christian church and the early theological thinking of Paul, which many argue developed over the span of his ministry.
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This city of Thessalonica was founded in approximately 315 BCE by King Cassander of Macedonia, who named it after his wife, the half-sister of Alexander the Great. Its location on the Gulf of Therme made it one of the best natural harbors on the Aegean Sea. During the Roman period, Thessalonica was the largest commercial center in the province of Macedonia. As with most major port cities, Thessalonica was cosmopolitan. In Paul’s day, it attracted laborers, tradesmen, and other skilled workers from all over the empire, and along with them, a vast array of philosophical and religious traditions. Archeological and inscriptional evidence points to religious practices that included:
(1) The mystery religions, which included the cult of Dionysus and especially Cabirus, which were patron deities who were thought to be regional guardians.
(2) The cult of Roma, which was the worship of the female deity that personified Rome and more broadly the Roman state.
(3) The emperor cults, which deified Julius Caesar and his adopted son Augustus.
(4) tTe Egyptian cults, which included the worship of Isis, Serapis, and Osiris. Religious practice was foundational in the formation of a common identity, social order, and civic life (e.g. shared feasts, festivals, expectations).
Many religions were financially sponsored and maintained by the city’s aristocracy because they contributed to the safeguarding of the hierarchical social structure. While Thessalonica was largely a pagan city (e.g. 1 Thess 1:9), both the reference to a synagogue in Acts 17:1 and a few Jewish inscriptions that probably came from that region, though from a later period, suggest that it also included a Jewish community, which was not unusual in the major cities of the Eastern Mediterranean.
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Authorship
The letter begins by identifying Paul, Silvanus (Silas) and Timothy as the authors (1:1). Despite the credit given to Silas and Timothy and the frequent use of the first-person plural (“we,” “us” and “our”), Paul is clearly the driving force in the letter’s composition (2:18). On several occasions, he uses the first-person plural (3:5; 5:27) and even appends his name (2:18). This does not imply, however, that his companions had no role in the composition. Timothy was Paul’s convert, close associate, and possibly his amanuensis. Silas was not one of Paul’s converts, but was a prominent member of the Jerusalem church (Acts 15:22), which would have further elevated the status of the letter. Attributing credit to fellow workers, especially Timothy, is not unusual for Paul, in spite of his leading role in those compositions (cf. 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1; Phlm 1:1). In Galatians, he goes so far as to mention “all the brothers and sisters with me” as his co-authors (Gal 1:1-2).
1 Thessalonians falls within the category of undisputed letters. Despite the omission of well-known Pauline theological ideas and terminology, such as “justification by faith” and “works of the Law,” there is consensus that Paul is the author. The so-called grand theological ideas that most people associate with Romans or Galatians are not found in 1 Thessalonians. The problems faced by the church at Thessalonica, which Paul knew well, were simply different.
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There are, however, a few parts of the letter that have been the subject of scholarly debate because they are thought to be later insertions, called interpolations, by someone other than the original author. These consist of very small portions of the letter that appear to be uncharacteristic in style, content, and/or terminology. Interpolations, which are not uncommon in the literature of the ancient world, were added for various reasons. One of the main reasons was to address an issue or add a perspective that the original letter did not consider. By inserting new material, the interpolator could use the authorship of the original letter to his own advantage.
Info Box 16.1: Examples of Interpolations
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Interpolations were widespread. In Jewish literature, for example, Josephus’ references to Jesus that he was the Christ, that he attracted many Jews and Gentiles, and that he rose again on the third day as the prophets foretold is often considered as a later Christian interpolation (Antiquities 18.3.3). In the New Testament, the following passages are variously considered as possible interpolations: Matt 6:13; 16:2-3, 18-18; 25:13; 27:35; 28:19; Mark 7:16; 9:31; 10:21, 34; 15:28; 16:9-20; Luke 2:14; 9:55-56; 11:2, 4; 22:43-44; 23:34; 24:12; John 1:18; 7:53-8:11; Acts 8:37; 1 Cor 14:33b-35; 15:3-11; 1 John 5:7-8.
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The section of this letter that is often thought to be an interpolation is 1 Thess 2:13-16. Not only does it appear to be an interruption in the flow of the letter, it is unusually bitter in its anti-Jewish sentiment. In this section, the Jews—whether they represent the leadership or ethnic group—are blamed for killing Jesus and the prophets, which finds no parallel in the undisputed letters. The Jews are also blamed for expelling Paul and his fellow workers and hindering their ministry to the Gentiles. For many scholars, since the middle of the nineteenth century, the statement in 2:16 that “the wrath of God has come upon them [the Jews] at last” is often read as a reference to the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE, which postdates the rest of the letter by about twenty years. That the Jewish people were subject to the “wrath of God” as some kind of final act does not coincide with Paul’s other references to Israel’s adoption and salvation (Rom 9:4 and11:26) or to his own hope of their conversion (1 Cor 9:20). Instead, 1 Thess 2:13-16 is more characteristic of what one finds in Acts where the Jews are blamed for the death of Jesus and are portrayed as Paul’s hostile antagonists. If 1 Thess 2:14-16 is an interpolation, then it was probably inserted after the fall of Jerusalem by someone who was not only influenced by Luke, but was caught up in some kind of hostile action by Jews against Christians after 70 CE.
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Scholars who argue that 1 Thess 2:13-16 is not an interpolation view this section as a digression that explains why Paul is so concerned about the Thessalonian converts. It is also argued that the bitter anti-Jewish statement is similar to Paul’s forceful rhetoric in other undisputed letters, such as 2 Cor 11:24-26, Gal 5:12 and Phil 3:2. While these are certainly strong condemnations, they are not necessarily anti-Jewish, but rather target either select Jewish leaders or Jewish Christians who want Gentile converts to Christianity to be circumcised. Since Paul did not live to see the fall of Jerusalem, the statement about the “wrath of God” coming upon the Jews in 2:16 is read as a reference to other calamities, such as the death of King Agrippa (44 CE), the famine in Judea (46-47 CE), the revolt of Theudas (66-70 CE), the expulsion of the Jews from Rome by Claudius (49 CE), or the riot in Jerusalem that resulted in multiple casualties—no less than twenty thousand according to Josephus (Ant. 20.112; War 2.225). Even if this number is inflated, the aftermath must have been disastrous. Alternatively, it is possible that Paul’s use of “wrath” is intended to be understood as Jewish apocalyptic language, which typically used poetry, symbol and imagery to capture the author’s feeling about the state of the world. Since the “wrath” has already “drawn near” to the Jews, Paul phrased it as an inevitability (1 Thess 2:16). If this is the case, then there is no need to isolate a specific historical event that corresponds to “wrath.”
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Info Box 16.2: Vilifying Language in the Ancient World
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The anti-Jewish language in 1 Thess 2:13-16 and in other parts of the New Testament should be understood as a common feature of ancient rhetoric called vituperatio, which was used in the context of social conflict. Groups or individuals that were in competition with each other commonly used vilifying language of the other. The purpose was to cast doubt on the legitimacy of rival individuals/groups and to promote their own legitimacy or that of their own group. In 1 Thessalonians, Paul uses this language to question the legitimacy of the Jews as the people of God because they have not adopted their own messiah. Conversely, he legitimizes his Gentile converts who have come to accept Jesus as messiah. While this awareness does not invalidate the anti-Jewish expressions, it does put the language into a proper context so that we do not collapse ancient and modern expressions.
Place of Writing
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There is no direct evidence in 1 Thessalonians from where the letter was written. Therefore, scholars generally turn to Acts in order to locate the letter’s composition within Paul’s travels. While Acts often differs from the undisputed letters on a number of biographical details, the references to Paul’s establishment of the church at Thessalonica and to his subsequent trip to Athens correspond to Paul’s own account.
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Corinth often emerges as the most likely place of writing. Here is why. According to Luke, both Silas and Timothy (by inference) appear to be with Paul during his first visit to Thessalonica (Acts 17:1-9), some eight months prior to the writing of the letter. Paul’s preaching in the synagogue over three weeks yields several converts, but also prompts a public uproar by opposing Jews. Paul and his companions escape the uproar by fleeing during the night to Beroea, from where they journey onward in separate directions. Paul traveled to Athens, where he delivered his famous speech to the Epicurean and Stoic philosophers on the Areopagus (Acts 17:10-32). He had hoped that Silas and Timothy would join him there, but according to Luke they do not (17:13-15). Paul’s account in 1 Thess 3:1-2 is different, implying that Timothy was with Paul in Athens, from where he was sent to the Thessalonians. Nevertheless, after Athens, Paul travels to Corinth where he first meets up with Silas and then with Timothy, who returns from Thessalonica (Acts 18:1-5). Since Timothy first delivered the news to Paul about the Thessalonians’ faith in Corinth (1 Thess 3:6), this is most likely the city where the letter was written and from where it was sent.
Date of Writing
Unlike some other Pauline letters, 1 Thessalonians can be dated with some precision, largely based on Acts 18:12, which reports that the Jews in Corinth attacked Paul and brought him before Gallio, the proconsul of Achaia, in order to present their grievances against him. Since their complaints were deemed as a matter of ethnic concern, namely their own Jewish law rather than civil law, Gallio dismissed the case outright. This historical reference to Gallio is important because an inscription has been discovered that locates his proconsulship to 51-52 CE. If the reference to Gallio in Acts is accurate, then this evidence, combined with Paul’s eighteen-month term in Corinth leads to dating 1 Thessalonians between 50-52 CE. Other dates have been proposed, but the majority of scholars do not differ from this tight range by more than a year in either direction. If this range is correct, then 1 Thessalonians is our earliest New Testament writing.
Letter Sequence
Since the 17th century, scholars have proposed on occasion that the sequence of the letters to the Thessalonians should be reversed. They have correctly noted that the priority of 1 Thessalonians should not simply be assumed because of its title and position in the canon. The Pauline letters initially did not have titles. These were probably added when the letters began to circulate together. Also, the letters in the New Testament are not arranged chronologically. They are instead arranged in descending order of length, with the letters written to the same communities placed adjacent to each other (1, 2 Corinthians, 1, 2 Thessalonians). The Petrine and Johannine letters are arranged in the same way. If 2 Thessalonians is the first letter, then we should probably assume that when Timothy arrived in Thessalonica from Athens (1 Thess 3:2), he brought with him what is today called 2 Thessalonians. When Timothy returned back to Paul with news from Thessalonica, the letter that we today call 1 Thessalonians was written in response to his report.
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Info Box 16.3: Was 2 Thessalonians Written First?
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There are several reasons why 2 Thessalonians is thought to precede 1 Thessalonians. (1) 2 Thessalonians (1:4-5) refers to present persecution of the faithful, whereas 1 Thessalonians refers to it in the past. (2) The idleness in 2 Thessalonians appears to be a recent problem (3:11-12), whereas in 1 Thessalonians it is well known (4:10-12; 5:14). (3) If Paul wrote both letters, then the emphatic personal ending in 2 Thess 3:17 is strange, unless it was the initial letter to a new audience. (4) The eschatological teaching in 2 Thess 1-12 makes more sense as an initial response to the Thessalonian anxiety, not as a follow-up response to 1 Thessalonians wherein Paul writes that they have no need of instruction (5:1). And (5) the two sections in 1 Thessalonians that begin with “now concerning” cover topics that are already hinted at in 2 Thessalonians, namely “brotherly love” (1 Thess 4:9; cf. 2 Thess 3:6-15) and “times and seasons” (1 Thess 5:1; cf. 2 Thess 2:1-12).
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It is certainly possible that the letters have been reversed in the canonical process. Placing 2 Thessalonians first in the sequence explains some of the similarities and differences between the letters, but it also raises new questions that require explanations. Though the problem of the letters’ sequence is far from being settled, the traditional canonical order is assumed in this chapter for several reasons. First, there is no mention of a previous letter in 1 Thessalonians, whereas in 2 Thess 2:15 (and possibly in 2:2; 3:17), the writer explicitly refers to one, writing, “So then, brothers and sisters, stand firm and hold fast to the traditions that you were taught by us, either by word of mouth or by our letter.” Second, the differences in the eschatological teachings of the two letters make more sense if 1 Thessalonians is earlier. It is easier to imagine that the more general expectation of the parousia, or the coming of Christ, which in 1 Thessalonians is anticipated when it is least expected (e.g. 1 Thess 5:2), led to the anxiety addressed in 2 Thessalonians that it had already arrived (e.g. 2 Thess 2:1-12). Explaining the reverse sequence of events is more difficult. Third, 1 Thessalonians includes many more details about Paul’s stay in Thessalonica than 2 Thessalonians, which is consistent with an initial letter instead of a subsequent one. Finally, if Paul is the author of both letters, the reference to his habit of writing final greetings in his own hand in 2 Thess 3:17 may be intended to authenticate the claim that this second letter actually came from him, which would imply that his personal greeting could be compared to his prior letter.
Audience
There is no mistaking that Paul identifies his audience as Gentile converts, writing, “you turned to God from idols to serve the living and true God” (1:9). He refers to “the Jews” as well, but the they are categorized as a group that persecutes the church in Judea, which presumably consists primarily of Jewish Christians. Paul does not mince words. He claims that “the Jews” were responsible for Jesus’ death and that they are always trying to prevent the gospel from reaching the Gentiles (2:14-16). They seem to be mentioned solely for the purpose of drawing a comparison of persecutions, which is Paul’s way of conveying empathy. As the Gentile Christians in Thessalonica have undergone a certain degree of persecution from their pagan neighbors, so also have the Jewish Christians in Judea experienced persecution from “the Jews” (2:14).
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It is doubtful that Paul’s audience included Jewish Christians or that they had much knowledge of Judaism. Unlike in Acts, Paul makes no mention of a synagogue. There is no mention of the Law and there are no direct scriptural quotations. The Jewish prophets are only mentioned in passing as victims who, like Jesus, were killed by “the Jews” (2:15). However, there are a few allusions to scripture and Jewish tradition, though they may not have been picked by the Thessalonians. For example, the anticipated day of the Lord is described as coming “like a thief in the night” when people are content and unsuspecting (5:2-3). The imagery, which is similar to that of Matt 24:36-44 (cf. Luke 17:22-35), alludes to the unsuspecting disposition in Noah’s time before the flood. Another example is the mention of Satan who is hindering Paul’s plans to visit. It is difficult to know what the Thessalonians would have known about Satan in the Jewish tradition. Paul likewise describes the resurrection within the linguistic and cultural sphere of Jewish apocalypticism, using imagery like the Lord’s descent from heaven, the voice of the archangel, the trumpet call, and the dichotomy between light and darkness (4:16-5:8). If there were no Jewish Christians in the Thessalonian church, they may have become aware of the imagery from a local Jewish community, resident God-fearers, or during Paul’s visit. Nevertheless, Paul’s pagan converts were clearly shaped by his deep-seated Jewish apocalyptic view of the world.
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In Acts 17:1-9, Luke presents a slightly different portrayal of the Thessalonian church. At the beginning of his missionary activity in Thessalonica, Paul focuses his efforts on the city’s Jewish residents by preaching in the synagogue, “as was his custom” (17:2). Paul’s arguments from the scriptures that “it was necessary for the Messiah to suffer and to rise from the dead” (17:3) over a three-week period did not win many Jewish converts, though “many of the devout Greeks and not a few of the leading women” believed his message (17:4). Luke’s account certainly opens the door for the possibility that the newly established Thessalonian church consisted of a mix of Jews and Gentiles, with the former being a minority. For many scholars, the Acts accounts present a slight problem when compared with 1 Thessalonians, which clearly indicates that the church consisted only of Gentiles. Moreover, the Acts account fits a literary pattern that Luke uses elsewhere, which suggests that it was not composed for the purpose of reconstructing the past, but for rhetorical purposes (see Module 13). If this is the case, then it is easier to make sense of an exclusively Gentile audience in 1 Thessalonians.
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Info Box 16.4: Did the Jews Drive Paul out of Thessalonica?
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While there is little question that there was a Jewish community in Thessalonica during Paul’s day, did it have the political influence that Luke suggests? Since we have no evidence outside the New Testament about the presence of Jews in Thessalonica in the first half of the first century, one’s answer depends on one’s view of the authorship of 1 Thess 2:13-16, which includes a reference to Jews who drove Paul and his fellow workers out of Thessalonica and hindered them from speaking to the Gentiles. If Paul wrote this uncharacteristically anti-Jewish portion, then it is in line with Luke’s account, affirming a powerful, well-established Jewish community. The Jewish hindering of Paul’s ministry throughout Acts (e.g. 13:45-50; 14:2; 18:12) may also be consistent with 2 Cor 11:24. However, if 1 Thess 2:13-16 is not written by Paul, but is an interpolation (see above) based perhaps on Acts, then the presence of a powerful community is more difficult to establish.
Purpose
Why did Paul write to the Thessalonian Christians and what did he hope to achieve? Answering questions of purpose are vital for interpreting Paul’s letters properly. In formulating an answer, it must be recognized that we only have a portion of the communication from which to infer the situation(s) to which Paul is responding. This means that when we read the letter—or any writing in the New Testament, for that matter—we must be thinking about what circumstances initiated its composition. All of the letters are occasional. When one reads through the entire Pauline corpus, for example, one immediately realizes that each audience had its own peculiar needs, which resulted in letters that look very different from one another, despite their common authorship. Reconstructing the peculiar circumstances and needs of the Thessalonian Christians is an imprecise endeavor because the data is limited to the letters themselves. Nevertheless, some inferences can be made.
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It seems that I Thessalonians was written almost immediately after Timothy arrived from Thessalonica with news about the state of its Christian community (1 Thess 3:6). Timothy may have delivered only an oral report or he may have combined it with a letter written by the Thessalonians. While Paul does not refer to a letter, there are hints that he is responding to itemized issues that could have been written down by them. Twice, Paul abruptly introduces a new subject with “But concerning…” (4:9; 5:1), which is the same transitional language he uses in response to the letter from the Corinthians (1 Cor 7:1, 25; 8:1).
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Nevertheless, one of the features of the letter that stands out is its lack of doctrinal or behavioral correction, which in his other letters provide us with the clearest entry into the conditions of the nascent Christian communities. In 1 Thessalonians, we see no evidence of gross misconduct that requires urgent rectification. If anything, Paul expresses a tone of affirmation and encouragement instead of correction. The letter conveys praise, without persuasion. He writes: “We instructed you how to live in order to please God, as in fact you are living. Now we ask you and urge you in the Lord Jesus to do this more and more” (4:1). Later, he reiterates the same praise: “Now about your love for one another we do not need to write to you, for you yourselves have been taught by God to love each other. And in fact, you do love all the brothers and sisters throughout Macedonia. Yet we urge you, dear friends, to do so more and more” (4:9-10). And finally, Paul says to them, “encourage one another and build each other up, just as in fact you are already doing” (5:11). Paul did not feel the need to break new ground with the Thessalonians, but rather he wanted to strengthen and affirm the behavior that they were already exhibiting. As is the pattern in many of his letters, he uses his own conduct as a moral example. It is likely that he wanted to reinforce the boundaries and distinctive features of Christian life within a religiously diverse urban center.
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What we do not know is why Paul needed to do this immediately after Timothy’s return. There has been no shortage of speculation about the underlying issues that potentially threatened the Thessalonian converts. The clearest hint why Paul wrote the letter comes from 2:17-3:6, which expresses his concern that when he left the Thessalonians, they would be vulnerable to temptations. In 1 Thess 3:5, Paul summarizes his concern, writing, “For this reason, when I could bear it no longer, I sent to find out about your faith; I was afraid that somehow the tempter had tempted you and that our labor had been in vain.” The “tempter” is probably Satan, who is mentioned earlier in 1 Thess 2:18. As in 1 Cor 7:5, Paul believed that Satan was constantly undermining his ministry through human agents. This deep-seated anxiety that his converts would abandon their beliefs in his absence, which allowed Satan to get a foothold, was probably unrelenting during his entire ministry (e.g. 2 Cor 11:28; 12:7).
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Info Box 16.5: Satan as the Tempter
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Within Paul’s apocalyptic view of the world, two powers are constantly at work: Satan and God. The imagery of Satan as the tempter of Christians is the chief adversary of God whom Paul blames for undermining his missionary work. Elsewhere, Paul calls him the “god of this age” who prevents unbelievers from following Christ (2 Cor 4:4; 2 Thess 2:9-12) and tempts believers to waiver in, or abandon, their new faith (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:11; 11:13-15). All who afflict Paul’s converts are implicitly demonized because their work is contrary to that of God. In Paul’s apocalyptic schema, the death and resurrection of Jesus marked the end of the age when Satan’s reign will soon be overthrown at Christ’s coming from heaven which will be visible to all (1 Thess 1:10; 4:16-17).
Themes
Expression of Thanksgiving
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Paul’s letters generally follow standard Greco-Roman convention, though they are often longer. They usually begin by identifying the sender(s) and recipient(s), followed by a brief expression of thanksgiving before addressing the main concerns in the body of the letter. While a letter’s expression of thanksgiving is usually brief when compared to the main body, this is not the case in 1 Thessalonians. Thanksgiving dominates the first three chapters (1:2-3:13). It is expressed in a heartfelt, affectionate, and joyful manner. This tone not only indicates the genuinely good relationship Paul had with his converts, but also conveys a huge relief that their faith has remained strong in his absence, despite the persecutions they suffered. Since the thanksgiving is prominent, 1 Thessalonians is often compared with similar letters in the ancient world that scholars call “friendship letters,” which were sent to convey good wishes and/or to renew friendships and acquaintances. Paul clearly enjoyed writing this letter, unlike for example Galatians and 1 Corinthians. His expressions of thanksgiving are intertwined with encouragement that the Thessalonians remain strong in their faith and with a desire to see them again.
Eschatology
Toward the end of the letter, Paul addresses issues relating to the Thessalonians’ misunderstanding of post-mortem existence for those who are in Christ. While this does not reflect the overall purpose of writing, it is an important theme. In 1 Thess 4:13, Paul writes, “But we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers and sisters, about those who have died, so that you may not grieve as others do who have no hope.” Although we lack the specifics of the problem (cf. 2 Thess 2:1-12), Paul assures his converts that their deceased loved ones who are in Christ will be included in the resurrection along with the living when Jesus returns. Similarly, in 5:1-2 Paul assures the Thessalonians that while the return of Jesus is imminent, they need to maintain their ethical behavior and posture of patience, encouragement, and peace.
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The concern probably stemmed from Paul’s initial visit, which was then relayed to Timothy. We can surmise from 1 Thessalonians (and some would say 2 Thessalonians if it was the first letter) that Paul taught his new converts that the death and resurrection of Jesus, who is the son of the one true God (1:9), was necessary for the final judgment and restoration of the world. It seems that the most important part of his teaching for the Thessalonians was the return of Jesus from heaven who will rescue his followers from the impending wrath (2:19; 3:13; 4:13-18; 5:1-11). In the time between Paul’s departure from Thessalonica and Timothy’s reunion with Paul, some of the members of the congregation apparently died. Their passing was especially troubling to the surviving members because it preceded the return of Jesus. Since the Thessalonians were expecting an imminent return, the deaths of their fellow congregants proved bewildering. Would they still be able to experience the much-anticipated communion with Christ, as they knew the living would? Would those who were still alive ever see their departed loved ones again?
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Paul responds sensitively to such concerns. He does not want ignorance to breed hopelessness (4:13). The answer to the Thessalonians’ worries is found in the resurrection of Jesus himself. Paul writes, “We believe that Jesus died and rose again, and so we believe that God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (4:14). In establishing Jesus’ resurrection as the pattern for the future resurrection of Jesus’ followers, Paul effectively makes clear that death is not the end for Christians. Those who have died will be raised, while those who are living will meet them “in the air” as they all go to meet Christ (4:16-17). It is noteworthy that Paul includes himself in the group of living believers who will see Jesus’ return, saying, “we who are still alive…” (4:17). From such expressions, it is clear that Paul expected Jesus’ return, and thus the end of the age, to occur within his own lifetime.
After Paul has reassured his audience that the dead will be resurrected, he anticipates their next question: When will the parousia happen? While Paul has no doubt concerning the return of Jesus, this does not mean that he knows exactly when it will take place. Paul employs two similes to describe the event of Jesus’ return: it will come “like a thief in the night” (5:2) and “as labor pains on a pregnant woman” (5:3). Both of these refer to its unexpected timing.
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Employing metaphors of light/day and dark/night (5:4-8) that were typical in Jewish apocalypticism, Paul divides the world into two kinds of people: those who live in the light/day and those who live in the dark/night. Paul describes believers as those who live in the light, which is characterized by sobriety, faith, love and hope (5:5, 8). They will be surprised by Jesus’ return, but they will be prepared and will not suffer God’s wrath (5:4, 9). By contrast, he describes unbelievers as living in darkness, which is characterized by sleep and drunkenness (5:6-7). They will likewise be surprised, but they will be alarmed by Jesus’ return because they will experience the coming wrath.
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Info Box 16.6: Paul’s Three-Tiered Universe
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Paul’s view of the universe, which reflected the science of the first-century, was drastically different from ours. It consisted of three tiers. The tier above the world was where God resides with the risen Christ. The tier below the world was the place of the departed. And the tier where humans live was sandwiched between the so-called “above” and “below.” So, in Paul’s perception, when Jesus died and rose again, he joined the Father in the heavenly realm above the earth. When he returns, he will come from heaven for his followers, whether they are on earth or below it, and they will live with him in heaven forever. While we still use the metaphors of “up” and “down” to speak about spiritual space, modern cosmology can no longer conceive of the universe in the same way.
God the Father and the Lord Jesus
Both letters repeatedly associate God with Christ. They do not equate the two, but they clearly convey that Jesus as Lord occupies an exalted position alongside God the Father in the thought and worship life of both Paul and his audience. While they are distinct, much of what is said about the Father is also said about Jesus. For example, as the Father is “the God of peace” (1 Thess 5:23) so also is Jesus “the Lord of peace” (2 Thess 3:16), and as the believers are “loved by God” (1 Thess 1:4) so also are they “loved by the Lord” (2 Thess 2:13). Though Jesus is called “son” only once (1 Thess1:9), the intimacy between him and the Father permeates both of the letters. It is through Jesus’ close relationship to the Father that he is exalted and gives hope to all who are faithful. His suffering, death, resurrection, and future return have meaning. They are for the benefit of believers. Paul provides a summary in 1 Thess 5:9-10, assuring his audience, “For God has destined us not for wrath but for obtaining salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ, who died for us, so that whether we are awake or asleep we may live with him.” While the exalted Jesus brings relief in a time of anxiety because of the hope of heavenly glory, Paul warns that he will also bring judgment against those who are afflicting the Thessalonians (2 Thess 1:5-9).
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The church not only grounds its existence in both God the Father and the Lord Jesus (1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1), but also receives its grace, peace, love and spiritual guidance from both (1 Thess 3:11-13). When it seeks guidance and spiritual strength, it directs its prayers likewise to both. The church’s life, thus reflects Jesus in its suffering (1 Thess 2:14; 2 Thess 1:4), love for one another (1 Thess 3:12; 2 Thess 1:3), honesty (1 Thess 4:11; 2 Thess 3:6-13), and kindness to all (1 Thess 5:15).
Idleness
Paul strongly encourages his converts to keep working and refrain from idleness. Manual work and self-reliance were expected so that no one became a burden in the community. As part of his final remarks, Paul encourages his audience to “acknowledge those who work hard among you” (5:12) and to “hold them in the highest regard in love” (5:13), but also to “warn those who are idle and disruptive” (5:14). This repeated emphasis on work indicates that the idleness of some members of the community was a problem. The expected return of Jesus caused some of the converts of stop working. If they were no longer able to support themselves and their families, it is foreseeable that they would have become a financial burden on others, which would not have presented the converts in a good light and would have reflected poorly on Paul’s ministry.
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Paul opposes idleness by presenting himself as an example, reminding his audience that he and his coworkers “worked night and day in order not to be a burden to anyone while we preached the gospel of God” (2:9). Encouraging the Thessalonians to follow suit, Paul later writes that they should lead a quiet life, mind their own business, and work with their hands “so that your daily life may win the respect of outsiders and so that you will not be dependent on anybody” (4:11-12). Paul’s reference to working and preaching the gospel implies that he and his coworkers combined manual work with ministry. We should not imagine Paul preaching on a crowded street to passersby. Rather, it is more accurate to imagine him making contacts and winning converts through his and his fellow workers’ labors and places of business. Today we might call this networking.
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While living in Thessalonica, Paul along with his co-workers most likely rented rooms in a multi-level building called an insula where they could reside and do business. On the street level, where most of the shops were located, Paul and his companions may well have set up a small storefront where they would have built their network of contacts. Paul does not say what kind of manual work or trade he practiced, but the book of Acts (18:3) indicates that he was a leather worker, which is often too narrowly interpreted as a tentmaker.
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2 Thessalonians
Introduction
Among the Pauline epistles, 2 Thessalonians has often been eclipsed. It is a short letter, consisting of only three chapters (forty-seven verses), that lays in the shadows of not only 1 Thessalonians, but also the entire Pauline corpus. 2 Thessalonians contains a unique depiction of imminent eschatological events and does not convey major theological themes found in Romans, Galatians, or 1 and 2 Corinthians. It says nothing, for example, about the place of the Law for Gentile converts, justification by faith, the role of Israel, or human identity in Christ. Instead, it targets the audience’s suffering and specific anxieties about the imminent return of Jesus. In addition, it is a letter whose authorship has frequently been questioned by modern scholars and often placed within the category of Paul’s “disputed letters.”
Authorship
As in 1 Thessalonians, the letter begins by identifying Paul, Silvanus (Silas) and Timothy as the authors (1:1). Despite their acknowledgment, and the use of the first person plural pronouns and verbs (“we,” “us” and “our”), there are enough uses of the first person singular (e.g. 2:5) to assume that the letter was composed by a single author, who identifies himself as “Paul” in an unusual way at the end of the letter. He writes, “I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand. This is the mark in every letter of mine; it is the way I write” (3:17). While it is common for Paul to write that the final greeting is in his own hand, only in 2 Thessalonians do we find the need to emphasize it as if he needed to convince his audience. Why did the author close his letter this way? A common explanation is that the author was not Paul.
Unlike 1 Thessalonians, which is universally accepted as being written by Paul, the authorship of 2 Thessalonians has been in doubt since the beginning of the nineteenth century. It has sometimes been said that if 1 Thessalonians did not survive, the question of authenticity would not have been an issue since many of the arguments against Pauline authorship are based on similarities and differences between the two letters.
The main difference in 2 Thessalonians is the eschatological section in 2:1-12, which attempts to calm the anxiety of the congregation that the “day of the Lord” has already arrived. The author disavows himself from such deceptive claims and instead forecasts that a series of events must first unfold, including “the rebellion” and the revelation of “the lawless one.” This is a noticeable divergence since it implies that the end, while coming soon, is extended with prior warning signs (unlike 1 Thess 5:2-3). What is more, the author claims to have explained these anticipated events to the Thessalonians while he was with them (2:5). If Paul was the author, why are they not included in the first letter?
Another major difference is the tone. 2 Thessalonians is much more forceful than the gentle demeanor of the first letter, which expresses Paul’s good relations with the Thessalonians. An example of the less patient tone is the severe warning to refrain from idleness, which continues to be an issue when the second letter is written. The admonition is terse without empathy: “Anyone unwilling to work, should not eat” (3:10).
In addition to the differences, proponents of non-Pauline authorship point to the overlapping material in the letters. Overall, 2 Thessalonians reflects several key themes in 1 Thessalonians, most notably Paul’s apocalyptic hope, which is central to his gospel, his assurance that perseverance in suffering will be vindicated, and that their oppressors will be judged and destroyed. In addition, 2 Thessalonians mirrors Paul’s gratitude for the Thessalonians’ faith and love in the midst of their suffering. Both letters also share several stylistic and linguistic features, such as their introductory sections that contain the author(s), recipients, and expressions of thanksgiving (2 Thess 1:1-3).
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If Paul wrote both letters, why would he repeat himself so often to the same audience within a short period of time? The answer proposed by some is that Paul wouldn’t need to repeat himself. Instead, the similarities are indicative of an author that attempted to imitate Paul, probably one of his disciples who wrote sometime later.
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While we cannot be entirely sure, it seems probable that Paul did not write 2 Thessalonians. Since students in antiquity learned how to write by imitating the styles of notable authors, pseudonymous authorship was a common practice when new ideas required the support of established traditions and/or authority figures (on pseudonymous authorship, see 15.5.4). Nevertheless, our deficiency is that we have very little information about the state of the Thessalonian Christians and their communication with Paul, his amanuensis, and his fellow workers. Some of the differences and similarities can also be used in support of Pauline authorship. If 2 Thessalonians was written after 1 Thessalonians, then its shift in tone, its reiteration of perseverance, and its apocalyptic hope may have been required due to changing circumstances. When Paul predicts in 1 Thessalonians that the end will come suddenly, it is possible that he is already incorporating the intervening events that are described in 2 Thess 2:1-12. Certainly, for the author, the “mystery of lawlessness is already at work” (2:7). Moreover, Paul could have developed the details of his eschatological thinking in light of intervening events. It is also possible that, while Paul wrote the letter, this section was added by an amanuensis, Silvanus, Timothy or even by a later redactor who was influenced by Revelation and thereby the original version of 2 Thessalonians was lost.
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Finally, some scholars who advocate Pauline authorship appeal to 2 Thess 2:15, which reads, “So then, brethren, stand firm and hold to the traditions which you were taught, whether by word or through our letter.” The mention of “our letter” is interpreted as a reference to 1 Thessalonians instead of 2 Thessalonians itself. If this indeed is the referent, which is likely, then it strengthens the case for Pauline authorship, but only on the surface. The problem is that it does not eliminate a pseudonymous author who wanted to be perceived as Paul.
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Caption: F. C. Baur was one of the first modern scholars to critically argue for the pseudonymous authorship of 2 Thessalonians. One of his main arguments was that 2 Thessalonians was influenced by Revelation. For example, he claimed that the “man of lawlessness” in 2 Thess 2:3-10 is modeled after the “beast” in Rev 13:1-9.
Place and Date of Writing
Since the sequence of the letters is uncertain and the authorship is often questioned, it is difficult to isolate the time and place of the letter’s composition. The proposals have varied widely. Among those who do not attribute the authorship to Paul, some have argued that the author was influenced by Revelation and Christian persecutions at the close of the first century. Others have argued that the so-called forger wrote soon after 1 Thessalonians in order to correct or possibly replace Paul’s depiction of the final events before the return of Jesus.
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If Paul is the author, then in light of the Book of Acts, the letter was most likely written from Corinth shortly after the first letter was sent. How long afterward, however, is uncertain. We should probably think in terms of months rather than weeks so as to allow enough time for the issues that are addressed in the second letter to have made their way back to Paul. It is doubtful that Paul wrote both letters at the same time to two different groups in Thessalonica, as is sometimes proposed. While this option can explain some of the differences and similarities between the letters, the likelihood of Paul writing to two separate groups is slim. Throughout his letters, Paul’s policy is to do the opposite. He frequently attempts to integrate groups into a unified fellowship. There is no indication of a shift from recipients that are identified as those who have “turned from idols” in 1 Thessalonians.
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