Fig. 12.21: The remaining wall of Herod‘s Temple is one of the most revered places of prayer for Jews and Christians.
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The theme of prayer also extends to Luke’s portrayal of Jesus in ways that are not found in the other Gospels. For example, Jesus prays before choosing his disciples (6:12), before asking the disciples about the crowds (9:18), and before Peter’s denial (22:32). Jesus prays during his baptism (3:21) and during his transfiguration (9:28). Jesus frequently encourages his disciples to pray (18:1; 21:36; 22:40), and even tells them parables about the importance of prayer (11:5-8; 18:1-14).
Info Box 12.4
Luke’s Hymns
Luke’ poetical sections, called hymns, were probably sung or recited in early Christian services, just as they are used in liturgies around the world to this day. Most Christians have come to know these by their Latin designations: Ave Maria (1:42-45), Magnificat (1:46-55), Benedictus (1:67-79), Gloria in Excelsis (2:14), Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32).
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12.7.2 The Reversal of the Socially Marginalized
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Unlike the other evangelists, Luke takes a special interest in the marginalized people groups of his day, such as women, children, the poor, and the outcasts. Jesus is portrayed as an advocate for social justice and a critic of the establishment’s treatment of the vulnerable. His social criticisms are rooted in God’s role as the compassionate householder of the world. Jesus is not advocating equality for all in some modern socialist sense, but rather that all are respected and cared for within the household economy.
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Fig. 12.22: Wall painting of a Eucharist meal where all of the provisions are shared. The same practice of distribution was practiced in Jewish household meals, 3rd century. Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome.
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Luke’s attention to the marginalized is cleverly developed in what is sometimes called the “Great Reversal.” As a social critic, Jesus challenges prevailing norms and values by proclaiming the good news of salvation, which is offered to all. From the beginning of the story Jesus is portrayed as the divine agent who comes to enact the reversal. Traditional security, complacency, and social division, which is propagated by the religious elite is confronted head on, resulting in a series of conflicts throughout the Gospel.
Ironically, the injustice that Luke’s Jesus confronts inevitably befalls him as well. As a victim of miscarried justice, he pays the ultimate price at the hands of the establishment he confronts. Unlike the other victims of injustice, Jesus is vindicated by God through resurrection and reverses a fate of hopelessness. The reversal is particularly evident in Jesus’ association with women and the poor.
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Women
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Luke’s inclusion of women is unparalleled among the Gospels. At the beginning of the story Mary is the first to receive the good news of salvation that will come into the world through her son (1:24-38). At the end of the story, women are the first to arrive at the empty tomb and are told by the two angels that Jesus has risen. In sharing this message with the disciples, they become the first preachers of the resurrection (24:1-12). One of the most poignant examples that confronts the religious expectations of the day occurs when Jesus visits the home of a certain Mary and Martha. In customary fashion, Martha attends to the prescribed duties of her gender, but Mary sits at Jesus’s feet and listens to his teachings (10:38-42), for which she is praised. To the modern reader who is not aware of first-century Jewish roles and expectations, this little episode may not have much impact, but to the reader who has some awareness of the social gender distinctions, Mary’s actions are nothing short of jaw dropping. Sitting at a rabbi’s or teacher’s feet implied that one is expected to carry on that teaching. We know from later Jewish literature, however, that rabbis opposed teaching women and women teachers.
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In addition to these examples of reversal, there are more female characters in Luke than in any of the other Gospels, such as Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna (8:2-3), the widow of Nain (7:11-12), the disabled woman (13:11), and the sinner who anointed Jesus’ feet (7:37-50). Luke seems to intentionally go out of his way to mention women as often as he mentions men, frequently in parallel to one another.
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Info Box 12.5
Is Luke intentional in his parallel references to men and women?
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The Poor
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Of all the disadvantaged groups in Luke’s Gospel, the poor receive the most attention. Jesus begins his ministry with a declaration that he has come “to bring good news to the poor” (4:18). Throughout Luke, poverty is viewed as a consequence of injustice. The poor struggle because of the exploitation of the rich. Jesus, however, not only criticizes the injustice around him, he challenges the justification for it by reversing social expectations. In first-century Jewish society, wealth, health, and power were often viewed as blessings stemming from divinely approved behavior, which may even included one’s ancestors. Conversely, illnesses and poverty were viewed as justified consequences to sinful behavior, which may have extended to one’s parents or recent ancestors. It is similar to how people in the West today commonly speak about karma.
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In Jesus’ reversal, the rich who need no consolation, who seek to justify themselves, and who respond to Jesus with rejection and testing are themselves rejected, “cast down,” and cut off from the blessings of the coming kingdom of God. The poor, the physically disabled, and the ostracized (e.g. the tax collectors and the sinners), who were socially relegated to lower strata of society, are consoled, blessed, and accepted into the coming kingdom. Jesus’ social criticism is nothing short of subverting Jewish values and mores of righteousness, power, and blessing.
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This theme is pervasive. Blessings for the poor and warnings to the rich are found throughout the Gospel in various forms. They are found in quotations from scripture (1:53). They are found in Jesus’ interactions with the rich (19:1-10). They are found in Jesus’ sermons (6:20-21; 24-25). They are found in Jesus’ parables, such as the parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus (16:19-31) and the parable of the Rich Fool (12:16-21). Most often, the theme is developed in the context of Jesus’ sayings about the kingdom of God. This is where one encounters many of the reversals of social expectations (e.g. 3:11; 14:13; 18:22; and 19:8).
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In addition to women and the poor, other marginalized people groups also play a role in the narrative. For example, Jesus refers to children when speaking about faith (9:47; 10:21; 17:2; 18:16). The shepherds receive the message from the angels about Jesus’ birth (2:8-20). The tax collectors and sinners attend a banquet for Jesus (5:30). Even the character of a prodigal son plays a positive role (15:11-32).
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Info Box 12.6
Comparing Jesus’ Sermon in Matthew and Luke
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The emphasis on the poor is especially noticeable when Luke is read alongside parallel passages from the other Synoptics. For example, compare Matthew’s “Blessed are the poor in spirit for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” (5:3) in the Sermon on the Mount and Luke’s “Blessed are the poor because yours is the kingdom of God” (6:20) in the Sermon on the Plain. Why didn’t Luke include “in spirit”?
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12.7.3 Salvation for the World
Luke stands apart from the other evangelists in his uses of the noun “salvation” and the verb “to save.” Unlike Mark and Matthew, he even refers to Jesus as “savior.” With so much attention paid to salvation, some scholars have come to see this theme as the key to Luke’s theology.
The New Adam
Luke develops this theme by first rooting it in the history of God’s plan for the world. Using the scriptures as his framework, he sees the fall of Adam (hence all humanity) in the creation story restored in the coming of Christ, the second Adam. It is the quintessential salvation story of paradise lost and paradise restored. Jesus, through his obedience, brings about the dawn of a new humanity for all who are faithful to him. But where does this leave Israel in the salvation story? Luke does not develop Israel’s election other than to emphasize that salvation is offered to the world through the representation of Israel, namely messiah. If one extrapolates the role of Israel in light of Paul, then Luke may well have understood the election of Israel as a means through which the world would be saved. Since Israel failed in her vocation to save the world, her representative, Jesus Messiah, fulfills her role.
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Luke’s portrayal of Jesus as the second Adam is developed in subtle ways. One of the most poignant examples is found in Luke’s temptation scene, which immediately follows his genealogy. Unlike Matthew, who begins his genealogy with Abraham and ends with Jesus, Luke begins with Jesus and ends with Adam, “the son of God” (3:38). In Luke’s temptation account, Jesus is immediately identified as the “son of God” by the devil. In two of the three temptations, the devil entices Jesus by saying, “if you are the son of God…” (4:3; 4:9). Unlike the original temptation account in Genesis, Jesus as the second Adam perseveres and is victorious over the devil. Soon after the temptation account, the demons identify Jesus as the “son of God” (4:41). Later in the transfiguration account, Jesus is intimately called “my son” by the divine voice (9:35). It is interesting how Jesus’ identity as the son of God is revealed only by non-human characters in the story.
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The Gentiles
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As the second Adam, Jesus brings salvation to the world. While it is extended to the Jews, the emphasis is clearly on the Gentiles, such as the Samaritans (10:29-37; 17:16), the widow of Zarephath in Sidon, and Naaman the Syrian (4:25-27). This is a departure from Matthew’s focus on the restoration of Israel (10:6; 15:24). The emphasis on the Gentiles is especially pronounced in the early part of the Gospel where Jesus’ identity and mission are initially described. Consider three examples. First, when the angels announce the birth of Jesus to the shepherds, they proclaim peace to all humanity, not specifically to the Jews (2:14). Second, while holding Jesus in his arms, Simeon praises God saying, “my eyes have seen your salvation” (2:30) and delights that the Christ child is “a light for the revelation to the Gentiles and the glory of your people Israel” (2:32).
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The third example is particularly interesting when it is set alongside the other Synoptic Gospels. All three Gospels quote Isa 40:3 in relation to the ministry of John the Baptist, but only Luke extends the quotation to Isa 40:5, which contains the pivotal phrase “And all flesh will see the salvation of God.”
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Salvation in the Present
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Salvation for Luke is not a phenomenon that is realized only in the future. It is available in the present and immediately to anyone who seeks to follow Jesus’ teachings. Jesus occasionally uses the term “today” when speaking about salvation. For example, in 4:21 Jesus astonishes his audience by declaring that the salvation passage in Isaiah 61 is “today” fulfilled. In 23:43 he assures the crucified person next to him, “Truly today you will be with me in Paradise.”
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Salvation in the present refers to a quality of life that is rooted in faith (better translated as faithfulness) as taught and exhibited by Jesus. People who believe in Jesus as God’s messiah, and are willing to forgo everything for him, experience life-changing phenomena, which take on a realism that was long anticipated by Jewish prognosticators. Salvation is the liberation from everyday bonds that prevented people from living in a fuller dignity and capacity, such as illnesses, demonic oppression, and starvation. Being set free from oppressive conditions allowed people to experience the kingdom of God, namely life in the way God envisions (e.g. 6:9-11; 8:34-39, 48, 50; 17:19; 18:42). The community of God takes on the quality of a just and loving household where everyone is accepted and has their basic necessities met.
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An example of Luke’s connection between faithfulness and salvation is found in the story of Zacchaeus who decides to give half of his possessions to the poor. Jesus responds unequivocally by saying, “Today salvation has come to this house” (19:9). Jesus more than likely did not mean that Zacchaeus was going to heaven on that day, but rather that he along with the recipients of the gifts were free to experience life in the way that God intended.
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12.7.4 Jesus’ Death as Martyrdom
Salvation in Luke-Acts is not directly tied to atonement in the sense that Jesus dies for the sins of the world. There are certainly passages that imply atonement, such as Luke 23:18-25 where the innocent Jesus dies in the place of the guilty Barrabas. Most of the references to Jesus’ death, however, imply that Jesus was an innocent victim of miscarried justice. Jesus’ death and resurrection do not in themselves cause salvation in Luke-Acts. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus is obedient to God and deserving of vindication, which he inevitably receives in the resurrection. Salvation is more directly tied to Jesus’ innocence and obedience, especially in Acts.
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Peter’s speech to his fellow Jews in Acts 2 is a classic example of how the innocence of Jesus is connected with salvation. When Peter puts the blame of miscarried justice squarely on his Jewish audience, they were convicted and inquired how they might make amends for the evil they had done. Peter’s response is swift. He tells them that they must repent and be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ so that they could be forgiven and receive the Holy Spirit (2:38). Sorrow, repentance, and baptism are the immediate means of salvation—which is a salvation from guilt and due punishment.
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The recognition of guilt before God, even for those who were not present at Jesus’ trial, is the precursor to salvation. While the execution of Jesus as God’s agent is the ultimate expression of guilt, and hence sin, it serves as a powerful metaphor for all other sins. Luke makes the process from guilt to salvation clear. When people turn from their sin, repent, and join the Christian movement through baptism, they are forgiven and saved.
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From another vantage point, Jesus faces his death in Luke differently than in Mark. He faces it nobly as the righteous martyr who is innocent of any crime deserving death. Even the centurion acknowledges the injustice, and ironically subverts the Roman legal process, by proclaiming Jesus’ innocence. Instead of having the centurion revere him as son of God, as is the case in Mark (15:39), Luke has him praising God and declaring, “surely this man was innocent” (23:47).
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Some scholars have noticed similarities between Luke’s portrayal of Jesus’ passion and the righteous martyrs in early Jewish traditions, such as those depicted in 1 and 4 Maccabees (found in the Apocrypha), where devout Jews undergo torture and death in the face of vicious Seleucid oppression. During the Second Temple period it was believed that this kind of righteous suffering and martyrdom for the sake of the faith affected the salvation of others. The martyrs were hailed as sacrificial victims whose blood had atoning value. This so-called vicarious suffering, which is later picked up by Christians, may be rooted in Jewish interpretations of the sacrifice of Isaac in Genesis 22.
Info Box 12.7
4 Macc 17:17-22 provides one of the best examples of righteous martyrdom in early Jewish literature.
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The tyrant himself and all his council marveled at their endurance, because of which they now stand before the divine throne and live the life of eternal blessedness. For Moses says, “All who are consecrated are under your hands.” These, then, who have been consecrated for the sake of God, are honored, not only with this honor, but also by the fact that because of them our enemies did not rule over our nation, the tyrant was punished, and the homeland purified—they having become, as it were, a ransom for the sin of our nation. And through the blood of those devout ones and their death as an atoning sacrifice, divine Providence preserved Israel that previously had been mistreated (NRSV).
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12.7.5 Hellenistic Images of Jesus
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Despite Luke’s emphasis on the Gentiles, he does not shy away from portraying Jesus by using the same Jewish categories as the other evangelists, particularly “Messiah” (9:20), “Son of Man” (22:69), “the prophet like Moses” (Acts 3:22), and “the fulfillment of Jewish prophecy” (22:37).
Alongside the Jewish categories, Luke draws upon several images from the Greco-Roman world to help his Gentile readers better understand Jesus’ identity. Luke’s frequency and variety are unmatched by the other evangelists.
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First, Jesus is presented as a divine philosopher or “holy man.” Greco-Roman biographies of divine philosophers attributed divine qualities in varying degrees to their subjects. Some were characterized as sons of gods, which implied divine parentage (e.g. like Apollonius of Tyana and Pythagoras), whereas others were deemed godlike (e.g. Plotinus) because they were gifted beyond ordinary men, despite their human parentage. Divine philosophers were often portrayed as wandering teachers who gathered disciples. Temporary stops along journeys were often used as venues for the propagation of the philosopher‘s ideas. After their master’s death, the disciples dispersed to carry on the teaching. Luke similarly presents Jesus as a wandering teacher who challenges prevailing norms, gathers disciples, and spreads his teachings. A considerable part of the Gospel is a travel narrative from Galilee to Jerusalem (9:51–19:40), which provides for plenty of opportunity for teaching. The book of Acts can also be viewed in light of these biographies as the continuation of the philosopher’s teaching by his successors.
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Fig. 12.28: Early catacomb art depicting Jesus as a Roman teacher, 4th century. Catacomb of Domitilla, Rome.
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Fig. 12.29: Coin of Hadrian and the supreme god and lord of heaven Serapis, who was a composite of Osiris and Apis in the Ptolemaic period and received popularity in the 1st century around the Roman Empire. 133-34 CE.
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Fig. 12.30: Replica of the Portland Vase depicting Augustus’ mother Atia with Apollo in human form and snake form. Quitinus-Romulus is on the left. Originally made 30-20 BCE. British Museum.
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Second, Jesus is presented as a benefactor. In Hellenistic tradition, benefactors were kings who regarded their roles as just guardians of their subjects. Several Hellenistic inscriptions associate the benefactor with a god. For example, in Egypt Pompey III (also called Euergetes, which in Greek is a benefactor) along with his sister Berenice II were known as “benefactor gods.” In Roman society, benefactors were public figures who were honored for providing some kind of benefit (e.g. bringing peace or prosperity) for a group of people, usually the residents of a city. In Luke, Jesus not only criticizes the actions of the benefactors, but also subtly takes on their role. Luke attributes to Jesus a customary attribute of consistency between word and deed (24:19) and the bringing of peace (1:79; 2:14, 29). Luke also describes Jesus as the savior of the world, which was customarily attributed only to the emperor, who was the ultimate benefactor of the empire. Finally, in Acts 10:38, Jesus is explicitly identified as one who “went about as a benefactor (euergetes).”
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Third, Jesus is presented as an immortal hero rooted in the Greco-Roman mythological tradition. In Greek and Roman mythologies, immortal heroes are sometimes described as the offspring of a human mother and a divine father. Although the stories were not always told the same way, the combination of human and divine parentage of heroes was a common theme throughout not only the Mediterranean basin, but across the south Asian continent. Some of the examples that have survived in Greco-Roman literature refer to Augustus as the child of Apollo and Atia, Asclepius as the son of Apollo and the daughter of King Phlegyas, Plato as the son of Apollo and Perictione, Dionysus as the son of Zeus and Semele, Helen of Troy as the daughter of Zeus and Leda, Orpheus as the son of Apollo and Calliope, Perseus as the son of Zeus and Danae, and Alexander the Great as the son of Zeus and Olympias. These hero figures were able to perform extraordinary feats, often benefiting their subjects or followers. After they died, some were said to have ascended to Mount Olympus, where they continued to maintain an interest in human affairs, sometimes even to the point of direct intervention.
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Fig. 12.31: Catacomb wall painting of Heracles (middle) bringing Alcestis back from death, 4th century. Via Latina Catacomb, Rome.
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Finally, the image of the righteous martyr in early Jewish thought, which was described above, has parallels in pagan literature. Since Luke was probably familiar with Greco-Roman literature, it is entirely possible that accounts of vicarious sufferers played a role in his theological reflections, though there are no direct quotations or allusions to such in Luke-Acts.
One of these accounts, which parallels the theme of Jesus as the righteous martyr (especially the execution of Jesus instead of Barabbas in 23:18-25) is found in Euripides’ Athenian tragedy Alcestis, probably first performed in 438 BCE. The story is about a king named Admetus whose destiny was to die at a young age. At the intervention of Apollo, the king is spared by the Fates, but a deal is struck that another must die in his place. Shockingly, Admetus’ beautiful wife Alcestis volunteers to be the sacrifice so that no one else in the kingdom would die. After her death the god Heracles comforts the stricken Admetus by rescuing his wife from death. When they are united, she cannot speak for three days until she is purified and fully restored.
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When Luke’s portrayal of Jesus is read alongside the Greco-Roman mythological tradition—namely his birth, youth, miracles, resurrection, and ascension—several interesting parallels emerge. Without discounting the numerous differences, the similarities suggest that Luke wanted his audience to understand that Jesus is no ordinary human being. Rather, his identity as the son of God and his vocation as the savior of the world extends even beyond the heroes that would have been familiar to Luke’s Gentile audience. In short, Luke uses the language of his culture to convey his lofty portrayal of Jesus.
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Fig's. 12.33: Jesus portrayed as the sun god Helios (Apollo), 3rd century. St. Peter‘s Basilica, Rome.
Fig. 12.34: Wall painting of Roman family banquet, 1st century. Pompeii.
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Fig. 12.24: Mosaic of slaves, who were the poorest class of people in Roman society, 2nd century. Bardo National Museum, Tunis.
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12b
12.7 Themes
Approximately half of the material in Luke has no parallel in the other Gospels. Seventeen of Luke’s parables are unique. Jesus’ inaugural sermon, which inaugurates his ministry, is unparalleled. The words of Jesus from the cross are found nowhere else. The ascension of Jesus is also unique to the Lukan tradition (occurring also in Acts 1:6-11). This large quantity of unique material contains several unique themes, such as the prominence of women, the repeated mention of Samaritans, the centrality of Jerusalem as Jesus’ ultimate destination, the salvation of the world, and an overall emphasis on social justice.
Info Box 12.3
Material Unique to Luke
Dedication to Theophilus (1:1-4), Promised birth of John the Baptist (1:5-25), Announcement of Jesus’ birth to Mary (1:26-38), Mary’s visit with Elizabeth (1:39-56), Birth of John the Baptist (1:57-80), Birth of Jesus in a manger with Shepherds (2:1-20), Jesus being presented in the temple (2:21-38), Jesus’ childhood visit to Jerusalem (2:41-52), John the Baptist’s reply to questions (3:10-14), Genealogy of Jesus from Adam (3:23-38), Good News to the poor (4:14-23, 25-30), Miracle of catching fish (5:1-11), Raising of the widow’s son (7:11-17), Encounter with homeless woman (7:36-50), Parable of two debtors (7:40-43), Ministering women (8:1-3), Rejection by a Samaritan village (9:51-56), Return of the Seventy (10:17-20), Parable of the Good Samaritan (10:29-37), Mary and Martha (10:38-42), Parable of friend at midnight (11:5-8), Parable of the rich fool (12:13-21), Parable of heavy and light beatings (12:47-48), Parable of barren tree (13:1-9), Healing of crippled women (13:10-17), Healing of man with dropsy (14:1-6), Two parables for guests and hosts (14:7-14), Two parables on counting the cost (14:28-33), Parable of the lost coin (15:8-10), Parable of the prodigal son (15:11-32), Parable of the shrewd manager (16:1-12), Parable of rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31), Cleansing of the ten lepers (17:11-19), Parable of widow and judge (18:1-8), Parable of Pharisee and tax collector (18:9-14), Story of Zacchaeus (19:1-10), Jesus weeping over Jerusalem (19:41-44), Reason for Peter’s denial (22:31-32), Two swords (22:35-38), Jesus before Herod (23:6-12), Pilate declares Jesus innocent (23:13-16), Sayings associated with Jesus’ death (23:28-31, 34, 43, 46), Jesus appears on road to Emmaus (24:13-35), Jesus post-resurrection appearance (24:36-49), Jesus’ ascension (24:50-53).
Adapted from M. A. Powell, Introducing the New Testament.
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12.7.1 Worship and Prayer
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There are twenty references in Luke to people worshipping or giving thanks to God (e.g. 1:8; 1:46, 64; 2:13; 7:16; 18:43). Stylistically, Luke begins and ends the Gospel with people worshipping at the temple in Jerusalem. Some of the hymns are extraordinary compositions of poetry, which have played an important a part in Christian liturgy for almost two millennia. None of the Gospels compares to Luke‘s profound expressions of reverence placed on the lips of his characters, like those of Mary and Zechariah. One of the clearest examples of Luke’s emphasis on worship and reverence is found in the story of the healing of the ten lepers. After they are healed, only the Samaritan leper expresses deep gratitude to God. Jesus chastises the others for their indifference (see Luke 17:11-19).
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Fig. 12.21: The remaining wall of Herod‘s Temple is one of the most revered places of prayer for Jews and Christians.
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The theme of prayer also extends to Luke’s portrayal of Jesus in ways that are not found in the other Gospels. For example, Jesus prays before choosing his disciples (6:12), before asking the disciples about the crowds (9:18), and before Peter’s denial (22:32). Jesus prays during his baptism (3:21) and during his transfiguration (9:28). Jesus frequently encourages his disciples to pray (18:1; 21:36; 22:40), and even tells them parables about the importance of prayer (11:5-8; 18:1-14).
Info Box 12.4
Luke’s Hymns
Luke’ poetical sections, called hymns, were probably sung or recited in early Christian services, just as they are used in liturgies around the world to this day. Most Christians have come to know these by their Latin designations: Ave Maria (1:42-45), Magnificat (1:46-55), Benedictus (1:67-79), Gloria in Excelsis (2:14), Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32).
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12.7.2 The Reversal of the Socially Marginalized
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Unlike the other evangelists, Luke takes a special interest in the marginalized people groups of his day, such as women, children, the poor, and the outcasts. Jesus is portrayed as an advocate for social justice and a critic of the establishment’s treatment of the vulnerable. His social criticisms are rooted in God’s role as the compassionate householder of the world. Jesus is not advocating equality for all in some modern socialist sense, but rather that all are respected and cared for within the household economy.
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Fig. 12.22: Wall painting of a Eucharist meal where all of the provisions are shared. The same practice of distribution was practiced in Jewish household meals, 3rd century. Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome.
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Luke’s attention to the marginalized is cleverly developed in what is sometimes called the “Great Reversal.” As a social critic, Jesus challenges prevailing norms and values by proclaiming the good news of salvation, which is offered to all. From the beginning of the story Jesus is portrayed as the divine agent who comes to enact the reversal. Traditional security, complacency, and social division, which is propagated by the religious elite is confronted head on, resulting in a series of conflicts throughout the Gospel.
Ironically, the injustice that Luke’s Jesus confronts inevitably befalls him as well. As a victim of miscarried justice, he pays the ultimate price at the hands of the establishment he confronts. Unlike the other victims of injustice, Jesus is vindicated by God through resurrection and reverses a fate of hopelessness. The reversal is particularly evident in Jesus’ association with women and the poor.
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Women
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Luke’s inclusion of women is unparalleled among the Gospels. At the beginning of the story Mary is the first to receive the good news of salvation that will come into the world through her son (1:24-38). At the end of the story, women are the first to arrive at the empty tomb and are told by the two angels that Jesus has risen. In sharing this message with the disciples, they become the first preachers of the resurrection (24:1-12). One of the most poignant examples that confronts the religious expectations of the day occurs when Jesus visits the home of a certain Mary and Martha. In customary fashion, Martha attends to the prescribed duties of her gender, but Mary sits at Jesus’s feet and listens to his teachings (10:38-42), for which she is praised. To the modern reader who is not aware of first-century Jewish roles and expectations, this little episode may not have much impact, but to the reader who has some awareness of the social gender distinctions, Mary’s actions are nothing short of jaw dropping. Sitting at a rabbi’s or teacher’s feet implied that one is expected to carry on that teaching. We know from later Jewish literature, however, that rabbis opposed teaching women and women teachers.
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In addition to these examples of reversal, there are more female characters in Luke than in any of the other Gospels, such as Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna (8:2-3), the widow of Nain (7:11-12), the disabled woman (13:11), and the sinner who anointed Jesus’ feet (7:37-50). Luke seems to intentionally go out of his way to mention women as often as he mentions men, frequently in parallel to one another.
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Info Box 12.5
Is Luke intentional in his parallel references to men and women?
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The Poor
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Of all the disadvantaged groups in Luke’s Gospel, the poor receive the most attention. Jesus begins his ministry with a declaration that he has come “to bring good news to the poor” (4:18). Throughout Luke, poverty is viewed as a consequence of injustice. The poor struggle because of the exploitation of the rich. Jesus, however, not only criticizes the injustice around him, he challenges the justification for it by reversing social expectations. In first-century Jewish society, wealth, health, and power were often viewed as blessings stemming from divinely approved behavior, which may even included one’s ancestors. Conversely, illnesses and poverty were viewed as justified consequences to sinful behavior, which may have extended to one’s parents or recent ancestors. It is similar to how people in the West today commonly speak about karma.
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In Jesus’ reversal, the rich who need no consolation, who seek to justify themselves, and who respond to Jesus with rejection and testing are themselves rejected, “cast down,” and cut off from the blessings of the coming kingdom of God. The poor, the physically disabled, and the ostracized (e.g. the tax collectors and the sinners), who were socially relegated to lower strata of society, are consoled, blessed, and accepted into the coming kingdom. Jesus’ social criticism is nothing short of subverting Jewish values and mores of righteousness, power, and blessing.
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This theme is pervasive. Blessings for the poor and warnings to the rich are found throughout the Gospel in various forms. They are found in quotations from scripture (1:53). They are found in Jesus’ interactions with the rich (19:1-10). They are found in Jesus’ sermons (6:20-21; 24-25). They are found in Jesus’ parables, such as the parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus (16:19-31) and the parable of the Rich Fool (12:16-21). Most often, the theme is developed in the context of Jesus’ sayings about the kingdom of God. This is where one encounters many of the reversals of social expectations (e.g. 3:11; 14:13; 18:22; and 19:8).
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In addition to women and the poor, other marginalized people groups also play a role in the narrative. For example, Jesus refers to children when speaking about faith (9:47; 10:21; 17:2; 18:16). The shepherds receive the message from the angels about Jesus’ birth (2:8-20). The tax collectors and sinners attend a banquet for Jesus (5:30). Even the character of a prodigal son plays a positive role (15:11-32).
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Info Box 12.6
Comparing Jesus’ Sermon in Matthew and Luke
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The emphasis on the poor is especially noticeable when Luke is read alongside parallel passages from the other Synoptics. For example, compare Matthew’s “Blessed are the poor in spirit for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” (5:3) in the Sermon on the Mount and Luke’s “Blessed are the poor because yours is the kingdom of God” (6:20) in the Sermon on the Plain. Why didn’t Luke include “in spirit”?
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12.7.3 Salvation for the World
Luke stands apart from the other evangelists in his uses of the noun “salvation” and the verb “to save.” Unlike Mark and Matthew, he even refers to Jesus as “savior.” With so much attention paid to salvation, some scholars have come to see this theme as the key to Luke’s theology.
The New Adam
Luke develops this theme by first rooting it in the history of God’s plan for the world. Using the scriptures as his framework, he sees the fall of Adam (hence all humanity) in the creation story restored in the coming of Christ, the second Adam. It is the quintessential salvation story of paradise lost and paradise restored. Jesus, through his obedience, brings about the dawn of a new humanity for all who are faithful to him. But where does this leave Israel in the salvation story? Luke does not develop Israel’s election other than to emphasize that salvation is offered to the world through the representation of Israel, namely messiah. If one extrapolates the role of Israel in light of Paul, then Luke may well have understood the election of Israel as a means through which the world would be saved. Since Israel failed in her vocation to save the world, her representative, Jesus Messiah, fulfills her role.
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Luke’s portrayal of Jesus as the second Adam is developed in subtle ways. One of the most poignant examples is found in Luke’s temptation scene, which immediately follows his genealogy. Unlike Matthew, who begins his genealogy with Abraham and ends with Jesus, Luke begins with Jesus and ends with Adam, “the son of God” (3:38). In Luke’s temptation account, Jesus is immediately identified as the “son of God” by the devil. In two of the three temptations, the devil entices Jesus by saying, “if you are the son of God…” (4:3; 4:9). Unlike the original temptation account in Genesis, Jesus as the second Adam perseveres and is victorious over the devil. Soon after the temptation account, the demons identify Jesus as the “son of God” (4:41). Later in the transfiguration account, Jesus is intimately called “my son” by the divine voice (9:35). It is interesting how Jesus’ identity as the son of God is revealed only by non-human characters in the story.
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The Gentiles
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As the second Adam, Jesus brings salvation to the world. While it is extended to the Jews, the emphasis is clearly on the Gentiles, such as the Samaritans (10:29-37; 17:16), the widow of Zarephath in Sidon, and Naaman the Syrian (4:25-27). This is a departure from Matthew’s focus on the restoration of Israel (10:6; 15:24). The emphasis on the Gentiles is especially pronounced in the early part of the Gospel where Jesus’ identity and mission are initially described. Consider three examples. First, when the angels announce the birth of Jesus to the shepherds, they proclaim peace to all humanity, not specifically to the Jews (2:14). Second, while holding Jesus in his arms, Simeon praises God saying, “my eyes have seen your salvation” (2:30) and delights that the Christ child is “a light for the revelation to the Gentiles and the glory of your people Israel” (2:32).
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The third example is particularly interesting when it is set alongside the other Synoptic Gospels. All three Gospels quote Isa 40:3 in relation to the ministry of John the Baptist, but only Luke extends the quotation to Isa 40:5, which contains the pivotal phrase “And all flesh will see the salvation of God.”
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Salvation in the Present
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Salvation for Luke is not a phenomenon that is realized only in the future. It is available in the present and immediately to anyone who seeks to follow Jesus’ teachings. Jesus occasionally uses the term “today” when speaking about salvation. For example, in 4:21 Jesus astonishes his audience by declaring that the salvation passage in Isaiah 61 is “today” fulfilled. In 23:43 he assures the crucified person next to him, “Truly today you will be with me in Paradise.”
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Salvation in the present refers to a quality of life that is rooted in faith (better translated as faithfulness) as taught and exhibited by Jesus. People who believe in Jesus as God’s messiah, and are willing to forgo everything for him, experience life-changing phenomena, which take on a realism that was long anticipated by Jewish prognosticators. Salvation is the liberation from everyday bonds that prevented people from living in a fuller dignity and capacity, such as illnesses, demonic oppression, and starvation. Being set free from oppressive conditions allowed people to experience the kingdom of God, namely life in the way God envisions (e.g. 6:9-11; 8:34-39, 48, 50; 17:19; 18:42). The community of God takes on the quality of a just and loving household where everyone is accepted and has their basic necessities met.
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An example of Luke’s connection between faithfulness and salvation is found in the story of Zacchaeus who decides to give half of his possessions to the poor. Jesus responds unequivocally by saying, “Today salvation has come to this house” (19:9). Jesus more than likely did not mean that Zacchaeus was going to heaven on that day, but rather that he along with the recipients of the gifts were free to experience life in the way that God intended.
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12.7.4 Jesus’ Death as Martyrdom
Salvation in Luke-Acts is not directly tied to atonement in the sense that Jesus dies for the sins of the world. There are certainly passages that imply atonement, such as Luke 23:18-25 where the innocent Jesus dies in the place of the guilty Barrabas. Most of the references to Jesus’ death, however, imply that Jesus was an innocent victim of miscarried justice. Jesus’ death and resurrection do not in themselves cause salvation in Luke-Acts. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus is obedient to God and deserving of vindication, which he inevitably receives in the resurrection. Salvation is more directly tied to Jesus’ innocence and obedience, especially in Acts.
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Peter’s speech to his fellow Jews in Acts 2 is a classic example of how the innocence of Jesus is connected with salvation. When Peter puts the blame of miscarried justice squarely on his Jewish audience, they were convicted and inquired how they might make amends for the evil they had done. Peter’s response is swift. He tells them that they must repent and be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ so that they could be forgiven and receive the Holy Spirit (2:38). Sorrow, repentance, and baptism are the immediate means of salvation—which is a salvation from guilt and due punishment.
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The recognition of guilt before God, even for those who were not present at Jesus’ trial, is the precursor to salvation. While the execution of Jesus as God’s agent is the ultimate expression of guilt, and hence sin, it serves as a powerful metaphor for all other sins. Luke makes the process from guilt to salvation clear. When people turn from their sin, repent, and join the Christian movement through baptism, they are forgiven and saved.
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Fig. 12.27: Icon of the Centurion, 16th century. Historic Museum, Sanok, Poland.
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From another vantage point, Jesus faces his death in Luke differently than in Mark. He faces it nobly as the righteous martyr who is innocent of any crime deserving death. Even the centurion acknowledges the injustice, and ironically subverts the Roman legal process, by proclaiming Jesus’ innocence. Instead of having the centurion revere him as son of God, as is the case in Mark (15:39), Luke has him praising God and declaring, “surely this man was innocent” (23:47).
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Some scholars have noticed similarities between Luke’s portrayal of Jesus’ passion and the righteous martyrs in early Jewish traditions, such as those depicted in 1 and 4 Maccabees (found in the Apocrypha), where devout Jews undergo torture and death in the face of vicious Seleucid oppression. During the Second Temple period it was believed that this kind of righteous suffering and martyrdom for the sake of the faith affected the salvation of others. The martyrs were hailed as sacrificial victims whose blood had atoning value. This so-called vicarious suffering, which is later picked up by Christians, may be rooted in Jewish interpretations of the sacrifice of Isaac in Genesis 22.
Info Box 12.7
4 Macc 17:17-22 provides one of the best examples of righteous martyrdom in early Jewish literature.
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The tyrant himself and all his council marveled at their endurance, because of which they now stand before the divine throne and live the life of eternal blessedness. For Moses says, “All who are consecrated are under your hands.” These, then, who have been consecrated for the sake of God, are honored, not only with this honor, but also by the fact that because of them our enemies did not rule over our nation, the tyrant was punished, and the homeland purified—they having become, as it were, a ransom for the sin of our nation. And through the blood of those devout ones and their death as an atoning sacrifice, divine Providence preserved Israel that previously had been mistreated (NRSV).
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12.7.5 Hellenistic Images of Jesus
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Despite Luke’s emphasis on the Gentiles, he does not shy away from portraying Jesus by using the same Jewish categories as the other evangelists, particularly “Messiah” (9:20), “Son of Man” (22:69), “the prophet like Moses” (Acts 3:22), and “the fulfillment of Jewish prophecy” (22:37).
Alongside the Jewish categories, Luke draws upon several images from the Greco-Roman world to help his Gentile readers better understand Jesus’ identity. Luke’s frequency and variety are unmatched by the other evangelists.
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First, Jesus is presented as a divine philosopher or “holy man.” Greco-Roman biographies of divine philosophers attributed divine qualities in varying degrees to their subjects. Some were characterized as sons of gods, which implied divine parentage (e.g. like Apollonius of Tyana and Pythagoras), whereas others were deemed godlike (e.g. Plotinus) because they were gifted beyond ordinary men, despite their human parentage. Divine philosophers were often portrayed as wandering teachers who gathered disciples. Temporary stops along journeys were often used as venues for the propagation of the philosopher‘s ideas. After their master’s death, the disciples dispersed to carry on the teaching. Luke similarly presents Jesus as a wandering teacher who challenges prevailing norms, gathers disciples, and spreads his teachings. A considerable part of the Gospel is a travel narrative from Galilee to Jerusalem (9:51–19:40), which provides for plenty of opportunity for teaching. The book of Acts can also be viewed in light of these biographies as the continuation of the philosopher’s teaching by his successors.
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Fig. 12.28: Early catacomb art depicting Jesus as a Roman teacher, 4th century. Catacomb of Domitilla, Rome.
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Fig. 12.29: Coin of Hadrian and the supreme god and lord of heaven Serapis, who was a composite of Osiris and Apis in the Ptolemaic period and received popularity in the 1st century around the Roman Empire. 133-34 CE.
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Fig. 12.30: Replica of the Portland Vase depicting Augustus’ mother Atia with Apollo in human form and snake form. Quitinus-Romulus is on the left. Originally made 30-20 BCE. British Museum.
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Second, Jesus is presented as a benefactor. In Hellenistic tradition, benefactors were kings who regarded their roles as just guardians of their subjects. Several Hellenistic inscriptions associate the benefactor with a god. For example, in Egypt Pompey III (also called Euergetes, which in Greek is a benefactor) along with his sister Berenice II were known as “benefactor gods.” In Roman society, benefactors were public figures who were honored for providing some kind of benefit (e.g. bringing peace or prosperity) for a group of people, usually the residents of a city. In Luke, Jesus not only criticizes the actions of the benefactors, but also subtly takes on their role. Luke attributes to Jesus a customary attribute of consistency between word and deed (24:19) and the bringing of peace (1:79; 2:14, 29). Luke also describes Jesus as the savior of the world, which was customarily attributed only to the emperor, who was the ultimate benefactor of the empire. Finally, in Acts 10:38, Jesus is explicitly identified as one who “went about as a benefactor (euergetes).”
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Third, Jesus is presented as an immortal hero rooted in the Greco-Roman mythological tradition. In Greek and Roman mythologies, immortal heroes are sometimes described as the offspring of a human mother and a divine father. Although the stories were not always told the same way, the combination of human and divine parentage of heroes was a common theme throughout not only the Mediterranean basin, but across the south Asian continent. Some of the examples that have survived in Greco-Roman literature refer to Augustus as the child of Apollo and Atia, Asclepius as the son of Apollo and the daughter of King Phlegyas, Plato as the son of Apollo and Perictione, Dionysus as the son of Zeus and Semele, Helen of Troy as the daughter of Zeus and Leda, Orpheus as the son of Apollo and Calliope, Perseus as the son of Zeus and Danae, and Alexander the Great as the son of Zeus and Olympias. These hero figures were able to perform extraordinary feats, often benefiting their subjects or followers. After they died, some were said to have ascended to Mount Olympus, where they continued to maintain an interest in human affairs, sometimes even to the point of direct intervention.
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Fig. 12.31: Catacomb wall painting of Heracles (middle) bringing Alcestis back from death, 4th century. Via Latina Catacomb, Rome.
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Finally, the image of the righteous martyr in early Jewish thought, which was described above, has parallels in pagan literature. Since Luke was probably familiar with Greco-Roman literature, it is entirely possible that accounts of vicarious sufferers played a role in his theological reflections, though there are no direct quotations or allusions to such in Luke-Acts.
One of these accounts, which parallels the theme of Jesus as the righteous martyr (especially the execution of Jesus instead of Barabbas in 23:18-25) is found in Euripides’ Athenian tragedy Alcestis, probably first performed in 438 BCE. The story is about a king named Admetus whose destiny was to die at a young age. At the intervention of Apollo, the king is spared by the Fates, but a deal is struck that another must die in his place. Shockingly, Admetus’ beautiful wife Alcestis volunteers to be the sacrifice so that no one else in the kingdom would die. After her death the god Heracles comforts the stricken Admetus by rescuing his wife from death. When they are united, she cannot speak for three days until she is purified and fully restored.
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When Luke’s portrayal of Jesus is read alongside the Greco-Roman mythological tradition—namely his birth, youth, miracles, resurrection, and ascension—several interesting parallels emerge. Without discounting the numerous differences, the similarities suggest that Luke wanted his audience to understand that Jesus is no ordinary human being. Rather, his identity as the son of God and his vocation as the savior of the world extends even beyond the heroes that would have been familiar to Luke’s Gentile audience. In short, Luke uses the language of his culture to convey his lofty portrayal of Jesus.
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Fig's. 12.33: Jesus portrayed as the sun god Helios (Apollo), 3rd century. St. Peter‘s Basilica, Rome.
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12.7.6 Affirmation of the World
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Luke (along with Acts) is perhaps the least apocalyptic writing in the New Testament. In contrast to the other Gospels, there is very little concern for the end of the age or the return of Christ. Many have pointed out that while Mark places the ministry of Jesus at the end of time, Luke places it in the middle of time (e.g. 12:38, 45; 19:11; and 21:24). For Luke, the dawn of the church age, as it is developed in Acts, is the beginning of a new era of salvation that now extends to the world. Luke believes that the return of Christ will surely happen, but it is far from imminent.
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As the potential object of salvation, the world is portrayed positively. The empire and its culture are not the instruments or location of Satan, but the safe domain for the establishment of the Church. The unconverted are not regarded as enemies. Instead, they are regarded as kind, open-minded, and intelligent. Christianity and culture are more compatible in Luke than in the other Gospels.
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One of the ways in which Luke fuses Christianity and culture is through his frequent mention of food and dining. Luke mentions nineteen meals (13 of which are unique to Luke). Not only does Jesus dine frequently (e.g. 5:29; 7:36; 14:1; 22:14; 24:30), he is accused of being a glutton, a drunkard, and one who dines with the wrong people (such as tax collectors). An occasional use of banquet imagery is also found in parables (e.g. 7:44-46; 14:7-24; 22:26-27). In Acts, meals take on a theological dimension. They become the venue for gathering, fellowship, worship, and even the appearances of the risen Christ.
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Fig. 12.34: Wall painting of Roman family banquet, 1st century. Pompeii.
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