M04a
Audio Reading
Religious Background: Judaism
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Introduction
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Video: Stu Talené
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First century CE Judaism was a rich and vibrant religious environment within which Jesus, his disciples, and most of the New Testament writers lived. While there are several similarities between early Christianity and the Greco-Roman religions and philosophies, none was as influential as Judaism; it was the cradle of early Christianity. Before Judaism and Christianity parted ways, after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, Christianity was essentially a Jewish sect or party. The term “sect” is here used to refer to any minor religious group or movement within the confines of Judaism.
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Devout Jew praying at the Western Wall (or “Wailing Wall”), which is today one of the most sacred sites in Judaism.
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Like most religions in late antiquity, Judaism was inseparable from politics and society in general. The Temple in Jerusalem, for example, was not only a place of worship, but it functioned as the national treasury. Unlike the other religions, however, Judaism was ethnic – meaning that most of its devotees were born into it. As such, it was a national religion that had its own forms of social, political, and religious hierarchy and institutions that were rooted in the biblical legal tradition, despite being under the control of Rome. In Palestine, where most Jews lived, the hierarchical system was rooted in the Jerusalem Temple and the Sanhedrin, the highest Jewish legal assembly. By the first century CE, Jewish people were scattered throughout the empire. Those living outside of Palestine are known as Diaspora or dispersion Jews. Particularly sizable communities were found in Alexandria and Rome.
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Diaspora Jews were influenced by the cosmopolitan nature of Roman society. Scholars today speak of Hellenistic Jews or Hellenistic Judaism, which refers to Jews who were influenced by (and integrated into) the mainstream Greco-Roman culture. Philo, a first century Jewish philosopher from Alexandria, is a good example of a Hellenistic Jew of the Diaspora. He essentially married Greek philosophical traditions with the Jewish scriptures. Often dubbed as the father of allegory, his interpretations resulted in a Jewish version of Greek philosophy.
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Depiction of Philo of Alexandria, Düssoldorf, 1584.
Some gentiles were attracted to Judaism. Those that converted fully were called proselytes, and those that followed Jewish teachings, but did not undergo circumcision, were called God-fearers. Both proselytes and God-fearers must have considered Jewish monotheism superior to pagan polytheism and superstition. Though, some may have simply incorporated the Jewish God into their personal pantheon. Converts may have also been attracted to Jewish community life, its views on morality, promise of immortality, and the considerable age of the Jewish religion, which would have been particularly attractive to Romans.
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God-fearer inscription from the theatre at Miletus, Turkey. The theatre was completed in 133 BCE. The inscription designates the occupants of the seat, It reads, “The place of the Jews who are also called God-worshipers.”
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Jewish Groups
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Video: Stu Talené
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Detail of the mosaic of the Battle of Issus, National Archaeological Museum, Naples, 1st century BCE.
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In Palestine, first-century Judaism was not a uniform or homogeneous religion. It was practiced by a variety of groups that differed in their beliefs, rituals, and interpretations. Many of these groups emerged during the Hellenistic period (from the time of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE to the Maccabean Revolt in 142 BCE). Though there seems to have been tolerance between groups in general, each group appealed to the scriptures to justify its own identity and superiority over rival Jewish groups. The scriptures were the main source from which traditions were developed, motifs were typologized, laws were amplified and reapplied, non-historical texts were historicized, and prophecies were deciphered, reapplied, or revitalized. This period produced some radical interpretive methods that led to innovative results. The Jewish historian Josephus, for example, lists four main Jewish groups in the first century: the Pharisees, the Sadducees, the Essenes, and the Fourth Philosophy. Modern historians have also included the Samaritans and the early Christians to this list. Because of their prominence in the New Testament, the Pharisees and Sadducees are here treated in more detail than the other groups.
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Pharisees
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Duccio di Buoninsegna, “Christ Accused by the Pharisees,” Museo dell’ Opera del Duomo, Florence, c. 1311.
Since the Pharisees appear in the New Testament as a prominent group, their identity and role in first century Palestine have preoccupied scholars for over a century. Pharisees have been described in a number of ways, such as a leading political group, an influential religious party, an academic group, and a lay movement seeking the priesthood. The reason why there have been various descriptions is that ancient texts referring to the Pharisees are fragmentary and biased. Our main sources for understanding the Pharisees are (1) the gospels, which tend to paint them in a negative light, (2) Josephus, who tends to portray them positively, perhaps because he himself claimed to live his public life as a Pharisee, and (3) later rabbinic writings, which were written by the successors of the Pharisees from the second century onward. In the past, apologetically minded Jewish and Christian scholars used these sources to defend the historical reliability of the gospels on the one hand or Josephus and the rabbinic writings on the other.
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History
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Prutah minted under the reign of John (Yehohanan) Hyrcanus I “Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews.” 130-104 BCE.
The history of the term “Pharisee” is unclear. Most scholars think that the term originally meant “the separate ones,” as derived from the Hebrew and Aramaic root meaning “to separate.” The term “Pharisee” first appears during the reign of John Hyrcanus (154-134 BCE), who was high priest and ruler of the Jews during the Hasmonean period. Josephus records that John Hyrcanus was at first a disciple of the Pharisees, but eventually switched his allegiance to their rivals, the Sadducees (Ant. 13 §§288-296). It is commonly argued that the Pharisees were the successors of the Hasidim or Hasideans (“the pious ones”), a group that arose in support of the Maccabean uprising against the Hellenizing policies of the Seleucids. Throughout their existence, the Pharisees served as advisors to some Jewish rulers, but during the reign of Herod their opposition to the Romans quashed any chances of resuming high-level advisory posts.
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The Pharisees of the first century CE can be described as a literate and organized group that sought influence with the ruling class in order to achieve their ideals of how society was to function. They are best situated within the retainer class, which was subordinate to and dependent upon the ruling class. Individual Pharisees, however, became important leaders due to their prominence within the group or on the basis of family status. On the whole, they were well known for their social concerns and respected for their extra-biblical traditions and interpretative abilities, perhaps because these traditions were already popular. Many of them served as religious and legal teachers, bureaucrats, and magistrates. Josephus tells us that during the first century there were approximately 6000 Pharisees in Palestine (Ant. 17 §42).
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Josephus
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Although there are about fourteen different passages in the works of Josephus that mention the Pharisees, two are particularly relevant and most often considered as background material for the New Testament, partly because they are set within the same historical period, namely the Herodian era and the war with Rome. In the first account (War 2.8.14 §§162-63, 166; cf. Ant. 13.5.9 §172), the Pharisees are described as having the reputation of being the most accurate interpreters of the laws. They are further described as believing in fate and the post-mortem re-embodiment of the souls of righteous persons. Their relationship with one another and with the community is marked by affection and harmony, in contrast to the Sadducees, who Josephus claims are rude to one another and to outsiders.
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Old Jewish cemetery, Prague, 15th century. Pharisaic belief in the resurrection was endorsed by subsequent rabbis and continues to be part of Jewish liturgy.
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In the second account (Ant. 18.1.3 §§12-15), which is written approximately fifteen years later (93-94 CE), the Pharisees are presented as influential among the townsfolk, who try to emulate the Pharisees’ beliefs and character. The beliefs described in this passage are similar to the previous passage. They include the post-mortem re-embodiment of the soul, punishment for evil souls and reward for good souls, and the combination of fate and free will. Their character is marked by integrity and tolerance as displayed through their simple lifestyle, faithful observation of their own commandments, and respect and deference for their elders. Josephus describes the Pharisees as being so popular and influential that “all prayers and sacred rites of divine worship are performed according to their exposition.” Josephus also extends his report of their influence to the political realm by describing their opposition to the revolutionaries who captured the fortress of Masada (War 2.17.3 §411).
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The Masada Fortress with the Dead Sea in the background.
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We must consider these sources cautiously, however, since they may well express Josephus’ personal bias as a former Pharisee and underlying intentions to satisfy his Roman patrons.
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Rabbinic Literature
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Page from a 14th-century Spanish Mishnah manuscript.
Rabbinic writings, such as the Mishnah (which was a compilation of Jewish oral laws) and the Tosefta (a commentary on the Mishnah), post-date the New Testament. Since these writings contain sporadic references to the Pharisees, they have been used as a source by some New Testament scholars. Caution, however, is strongly recommended when using these sources for reconstructing pre-70 CE Pharisaism. Not only were these writings written well after the Pharisaic movement ceased to exist, they were written by the successors of the Pharisees, called “the rabbis,” who advocated a pro-Pharisee and anti-Sadducee bias.
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The focus within the sketchy rabbinic accounts concerning the Pharisees is on the internal affairs of the group, with primary interest given to the relationship between the House of Shammai and the House of Hillel, which were two schools of thought within Pharisaism. Much of the debate within the party, according to rabbinic material, centers upon ritual purity, agricultural taboos, Sabbath and festival behavior, and how these practices affect table-fellowship.
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The New Testament
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Overall, the numerous references to the Pharisees in the gospels do not include much detailed information about their role and beliefs, despite their interactions with Jesus on a host of topics, such as ritual purity, the Sabbath, marriage and divorce, and religious and political authority. That the historical Jesus had dealings with the Pharisees should not be doubted. Since Jesus was not a prominent figure during his lifetime, he would not have been noticed by the ruling class of Jerusalem, but he would have been confronted by local leaders, like the Pharisees, who were also vying for influence among the common people.
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For historians, one of the problems with using the gospel accounts is that the Pharisees are often portrayed in a negative light as the antagonists and inquisitors of Jesus. The bias of the evangelists is particularly noticeable when the Pharisees – many of whom were well educated – are portrayed as being rhetorically and intellectually inferior to Jesus. They often lack a response to his questions. Their portrayal in the gospels does not coincide with our information about them in Josephus and the rabbinic literature where they are described as experts in the law and Jewish traditions. The different portrayals do not necessarily invalidate the historicity of the conflict accounts in the gospels, but the details themselves need to be considered with caution and awareness of the intention and bias of each author.
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Detail of Michelangelo’s “Pieta Bandini” depicting the Pharisee Nicodemus (as a self-portrait) holding the body of Christ.
Museo dell’ Opera del Duomo, Florence, 1555.
In several gospel passages, scribes are placed alongside the Pharisees (e.g. Matt 12:38). Scribes were professionals who could read and write and were well known for their ability to interpret the law. They served as secretaries and chroniclers, taught the scriptures in synagogues, and adjudicated legal disagreements in court. Because of their strict devotion to the scriptures and their role as custodians of Jewish tradition, many of the scribes were Pharisees, but not all Pharisees were scribes. The designations “lawyer,” “scribe” and “teacher” were essentially synonymous.
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Sadducees
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In comparison to the Pharisees, the Sadducees have received very little attention by historians. Most historical descriptions of the Sadducees come from Josephus, the New Testament, and rabbinic literature. However, a reconstruction of this group based solely on these sources is of limited value. The problem is that all of these sources represent an antagonistic perspective toward the Sadducees. In other words, they were written by individuals or groups that were hostile to the Sadducees.
History
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The derivation of the name “Sadducee” is difficult to establish and has generated at least two possibilities. Some scholars suggest that the name derived from the Hebrew root word for “righteous” or “just.” Others have connected the name with Zadok, who was high priest during the reign of David (2 Sam 8.17) and Solomon (1 Kgs 1.34).
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Prayer shawls like this one were commonly worn by Sadducees who were priests.
Like the Pharisees, the Sadducees emerged during the Hasmonean period. They began as supporters of the expansionist policies of the Hasmonean princes and soon wielded political influence and authority. During the time of Jesus, the Sadducees were a small group numerically, but exercised widespread control among Jews in Palestine. They controlled both the Temple and the Sanhedrin, and maintained practical relationships with Roman governors. Many of the Sadducees were landowners and could be classified as belonging to the elite class. Recent research indicates that several of Jesus’ parables may have been directed at the Sadducean landowners. After the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, the Sadducean aristocracy disappears from history.
Josephus
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When Josephus’ portrayal of the Pharisees is compared with the Sadducees, a stark contrast is immediately observed. The Sadducees appear to have no redeeming qualities or beliefs. Although Josephus does not mention the Sadducess as often as he does the Pharisees or the Essenes, he does include three references that may be helpful for understanding this group.
First, in War 2.8.14 §§164-66, Josephus contrasts certain beliefs and behavioral qualities of the Sadducees with those of the Pharisees. In the context of describing the Jewish philosophical schools, the Sadducees (called the second school) are described as rejecting fate and endorsing free will. The implication is that God is in no way responsible for evil. Also, unlike the Pharisees, they deny the immortality of the soul. As mentioned above, they are identified as being ignorant among themselves and rude in their interactions with their peers from other sects.
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Secondly, a similar contrast of certain beliefs is recorded in Antiquities 18.1.4 §16-17 (cf. 13.5.9 §171-72). After describing certain Pharisaic beliefs and practices that win favor among the townspeople, Josephus launches into a brief description of the Sadducees’ beliefs and practices that, by vivid contrast, appear inferior. Unlike the Pharisees, the Sadducees are described as (1) believing in the more traditional view of the mortality of the soul and body, (2) accepting no observances apart from the written laws, and (3) encouraging disputes with their teachers. Josephus closes by claiming that when the Sadducees assume high offices, they submit unwillingly to “the formulas of the Pharisees” due to public pressure.
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Finally, in Antiquities 20.9.1 §199, Josephus describes how Ananus the Sadducean high priest had James, the brother of Jesus, along with several others, executed just prior to the war with Rome. This is the only place where a high priest is described as a Sadducee. A brief general statement describes the Sadducees as being “more heartless than any of the other Jews... when they sit in judgment.”
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Russian Orthodox icon of James, the brother of Jesus. Unknown artist, 1809.
Rabbinic Literature
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In the rabbinic writings there are relatively few appearances of the Sadducees. When they are mentioned, it is usually in contexts where they disagree with the Pharisees or sages. Since the Sadducees are usually painted in a poor light for not conforming to the traditions of the Pharisees, the historical reliability of the rabbinic literature as it looks back on the first century is considered suspect. The negative portrayal of the Sadducees is used to defend the legitimacy of rabbinic teachings. In later rabbinic writings, like the Talmud, they are sometimes even considered heretics or illegitimate Jews. The Sadducees become stereotyped as the adversaries of the Pharisees. Unfortunately, they are not portrayed as an authentic first century group with its own identity and interpretation of Judaism.
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Carl Schleicher’s “Eine Streitfrage aus dem Talmud,” depicting a stereotypical debate among rabbis over the Torah and rabbinic tradition. Dorotheum Gallery, Vienna, c. 1866.
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The New Testament
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The portrayal of the Sadducees in the New Testament is consistent with Josephus and rabbinic literature on at least two points: their denial of resurrection, and the group’s elite status in Judaism. The denial of resurrection is of particular interest for obvious reasons. In the synoptic gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke), the only appearance of the Sadducees in which another group does not accompany them is found in the context of a debate over the validity of resurrection (Mark 12:18-27; Matt 22:23-33; Luke 20:27-40). In the book of Acts, the Sadducees are associated with the Jerusalem leadership – either with the Temple authorities (4:1), the high priest (5:17), or the Sanhedrin/Council (23:1-7).
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Duccio di Buoninsegna, “Young Jesus Teaches in the Temple” from Luke 2:46-51. Pharisees and Sadducees are depicted.
Museo dell’ Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena, 1308-11.
Historians have also noticed an apparent inconsistency between the New Testament and the Jewish sources. The New Testament does not consistently represent the same rivalry between the Pharisees and Sadducees that we find in Josephus and rabbinic literature. In Matthew, the Sadducees and Pharisees are often placed alongside one another as if they were somehow similar, or working as a team. On several occasions Matthew unites them as common opponents of Jesus by using phrases like “Pharisees and Sadducees coming for baptism” (3:7), “leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees” (16:6), and most surprisingly, “teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees” (16:12). Matthew’s interest does not lie in the differences or similarities between the two groups. They function as literary antagonists in the development of Jesus’ identity and mission. The modern reader must therefore consider contexts when determining the accuracy of such descriptions.
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Essenes
Like the Pharisees, the Essenes seemed to have originated from the Hasidim, who protested against the political and religious policies of the Hasmoneans. Unfortunately, our information about them is scattered and incomplete. Among the most plausible reconstructions is the hypothesis that the Essene community was founded by the “Teacher of Righteousness,” who criticized the Temple establishment, especially the high priest, during the reign of Alexander Jannaeus, king of Judea (103-76 BCE). Others have argued that the “Teacher of Righteousness” founded the Essene community earlier in opposition to Jonathan, the Maccabean high priest, during the middle of the second century BCE.
Whatever the specific cause, the Essenes moved away from the Temple in Jerusalem, which they regarded as corrupt and its priesthood as evil. Like the Sadducees, the Essenes disappear from the historical record after 70 CE. Historians surmise that the Essene communities fell victim to the Roman onslaught against the Jews between 66-70 CE.
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The Essenes are most well known for their possible connection to the Dead Sea Scrolls that were discovered in the late 1940s in caves by the Dead Sea. Since the first cave is situated about a kilometer north of Wadi Qumran, the documents are also called the Qumran scrolls and the group associated with them is referred to as the Qumran community. Some hypothesize that the writers and/or collectors of the Dead Sea Scrolls were members of an Essene-like group (more is said about the documents below). There were colonies of Essenes throughout Judea, both in the wilderness and in urban areas. The Essene settlement near Qumran may have been an all-male community living in isolation, similar to later (Christian) monastic practices. Josephus describes the Essenes as renouncing pleasure, opposing marriage, and adopting young children in order to instruct them in their ways. He goes on to say that they wore white garments, lived communally, were sober, and preferred silence (War 2.8.2–11 §§119–158).
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A cave at Qumran where some of the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered.
The Essene legalistic and ritualistic practices were the most rigorous of all the Jewish sects. The group at Qumran even abstained from defecation on the Sabbath. Their existence was predicated on the hope that God would intervene in their lifetimes and bring about an apocalyptic end to evil (which included the Temple establishment). They saw themselves as living at the end of the age, as agents of righteousness that would hasten the final cataclysmic battle through disciplined religious practices, such as baptism, ritual purity, keeping of the Sabbath, scripture reading, and prayer. As part of the arrival of the messianic kingdom, they awaited the appearance of several end time figures, including a great prophet like Moses, a royal messiah like King David, and a priestly Messiah like Aaron, the brother of Moses.
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Ritual bath, called mikveh, found at Qumran.
Although the Essenes are never mentioned in the New Testament, their beliefs, practices, and writings have forever changed the way that scholars understand early Judaism, and by extension early Christianity. One of the more interesting parallels between the New Testament and the Essenes is found in the ministry of John the Baptist. Both the Essenes and John were rooted in the biblical theological traditions centering in the wilderness and on ritual bathing. Both lived in the wilderness. Both had a vivid sense of impending crises, namely that divine judgment would come very soon. Both had messianic expectations. Both awaited the coming of the Holy Spirit, and both grounded their missions on Isa 40:3 (“In the wilderness, prepare the way of the Lord”). Scholars speculate that Jesus may have also been influenced by Essene teaching since he was a disciple of John’s before venturing out on his own ministry.
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The Fourth Philosophy
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Ruins of Gamla (today in the Golan Heights), which was the site of a Roman siege against Jewish rebels in 67 CE. According to Josephus (War 4.1-83) 4000 residents were slaughtered, while another 5000 were killed or injured fleeing down the mountainside.
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By the first century, the “politics of violence” was familiar to everyone. The success of the military campaigns of the Maccabees against the Seleucids influenced waves of similar guerrilla movements against the Romans. One of these resistance groups, founded by Judah the Galilean and Zadok the Pharisee, is called “The Fourth Philosophy” by Josephus. There is very little evidence regarding this group, leading some scholars to believe that they were an invention of Josephus, or an inconsequential group chosen as a scapegoat for starting the war with Rome. The report is that this resistance movement acquired many followers who engaged in violent uprisings. They refused to pay taxes to Rome, they regarded any loyalty to Caesar as sinful, and they were constantly trying to spark revolts—one of which led to the destruction of the second Temple in 70 CE. It is proposed that, during the Jewish war with Rome, they took the name “Zealots” as an official designation. The Zealots made their last stand in the famous siege at the mountain fortress of Masada.
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The members of “the Fourth Philosophy” were bound by a passion for freedom and zeal for God. Many were willing to be tortured and die rather than be dominated by a foreign power. Josephus describes them as sharing many of the beliefs of the Pharisees, apart from their violent tactics and self-sacrifice for the cause of political freedom (Ant. 18:23–5).
Beliefs, Practices and Institutions
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Video: Stu Talené
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The beliefs and practices of the Jewish religion in the first century were foundational for early Christian formation. Jesus was a Jew whose mission was the restoration of Israel, and not the founding of a new religion. For his earliest followers, their Jewish heritage provided the religious language, concept of God, the scriptures, rituals, notions of faith, law, grace, obedience, justice, eschatological expectation, and messianic hope that gave expression to their understanding of Jesus’ messianic identity. It is no exaggeration to say that early Christianity in general and the New Testament in particular cannot be properly understood without a familiarity with early Judaism.
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Monotheism and Election
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The most distinguishing feature of Judaism in the context of the Greco-Roman world was its monotheism, the belief in one God, to the exclusion of all others. However, the Jewish people were not always monotheistic. The development of monotheism in the history of Israel is long and complex. Israel’s development of monotheism stems from the polytheistic cultures of the Ancient Near East. Before monotheism took root, Israel believed that Yahweh was the supreme god over all the other gods. Eventually, well before the first century, the Jews came to believe that Yahweh was the only god. This traditional understanding of Jewish monotheism has recently been challenged, however. Some scholars today argue that while many Jews in the first century worshiped Yahweh as their ethnic God, they may have also believed in the existence of the Roman deities. Thus they were monotheistic in practice, but not necessarily in belief.
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Floor mosaic from the Tzippori synagogue, Sepphoris. 5th century. The entire floor of the synagogue is covered with mosaics depicting scenes from both the bible and the Greek mythology. This scene depicts the divine hero Heracles (Roman Hercules), the son of Zeus and Alcmene, in a drinking contest with Dionysus, the god of wine.
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In conjunction with monotheism, the Jews of the first century believed that they were the elect people of God, the chosen race that was given privilege and would one day be restored. The identity of election was rooted in the biblical traditions of Yahweh’s special favor and guidance extended to Abraham, Moses, David, and the prophets. In the letter to the Romans, Paul seizes upon Israel’s elect status, but appropriates it for his new theology. Paul argues that national Israel was elected for the purpose of bringing salvation to the whole world. Unfortunately, despite all of the blessings and grace, Israel failed to complete its vocation. Paul goes on to say that God was nevertheless faithful to his covenantal promise by electing another Israel, namely the messiah, who fulfills the promise of salvation to the world.
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Torah
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Jekuthiel Sofer’s Decalogue (Ten Laws) on parchment. Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana, Amsterdam, 1768.
Another identifying feature of the Jewish religion (past and present) is the reception of Torah, which conveys “instruction” or “teaching,” but is usually translated “Law.” As an elect people of God, the covenantal obligation of the Jews was to keep the requirements of Torah. These included laws concerning morality, ceremonies of worship, rituals, communal life, family structure, and international politics. What is more, the law requires a disposition of love and honor toward God. The giving of the Law through Moses was not considered as a hardship or an onerous catalogue of rules imposed on the people, but rather as an offering of mercy, grace, and privilege.
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In addition to referring to the covenantal obligations of the Jewish people, the term “Torah” also refers to the first five books of the bible, which are traditionally credited to Moses, but were likely written many centuries after he would have lived. Today, we call these five books the “Pentateuch” (which means “five scrolls”). These are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
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Rembrandt, Moses with the tablets of the Law. Gemaldegalerie der Staatlichen Muzeen zu Berlin, 1659.
One of the biggest misconceptions among Christians is that Judaism was a legalistic religion that required obedience to the Law in order to receive God’s favor and salvation. Among Protestants, the dichotomy between the Law of the Jews and the grace of the Christians goes back to the early part of the Reformation in the sixteenth century. The Torah, however, was never understood as a checklist of works that one had to complete. The Jews understood (and still understand) the Torah as a gift given by God to help his people live life to its fullest in response to the grace that God has bestowed.
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After the Maccabean Revolt, certain laws, called the “works of the law,” served as identity markers for Jews. In other words, those who did not fulfill the so-called “works of the law” were not regarded as Jewish. These typically included circumcision, Sabbath, and certain dietary restrictions. Paul engages in this discussion in the letters to the Romans and Galatians when he confronts fellow Christians who want his new gentile converts to complete their faith through the practice of the “works of the law,” especially circumcision.