M01b
(Module 01, Continued)
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The Roman Period
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Video: Stu Talené
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Arch of Titus, Rome. 82 CE. The relief depicts the Roman soldiers carrying a Menorah from Jerusalem as a symbol of victory over the Jews.
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While the cradle of earliest Christianity was Palestinian Judaism, its development and expansion can be credited to the Roman Empire of the first century. Rome’s infrastructure, political and social policies, and military created the ideal conditions for early Christian missions. As Christianity expanded throughout the empire, its formation was influenced by the richness and diversity of Roman culture and its inherited Hellenistic traditions. The broad use of Greek in the eastern part of the empire, and the use of Latin in the west, were the means through which the faith was understood and communicated. The philosophical traditions, the rhetorical methods, literary genres and artistry, the political, legal, ethical structures, and social relations (such as slave/masters, husbands/wives/children, classes) among other aspects, all influenced how Christianity took shape.
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Roman Control of Palestine
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Roman expansion into the eastern regions of the Mediterranean, such as Palestine and Asia Minor, began to take shape in the first half of the second century BCE. Taking advantage of the longstanding strife between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties, and the threat of the Parthians, the Romans made their way into the region and gained control of Egypt and much of Asia Minor. When the Seleucids (under the rule of Antiochus IV) were weakened and fractured by both the Parthian and Maccabean campaigns, Rome’s influence and power became more prominent. Political instability creates military weakness and inroads for aggressive rivals. The Eastern Mediterranean did not fall under Roman supremacy for another eighty years.
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Before Pompey seized control of Palestine in 63 BCE and put an end to Jewish independence, he was sent by Rome to hunt down pirates in the Mediterranean. In the process, he seized and controlled various strategic parts of the shoreline. During this time, he was informed that the Jews were in civil distress, fighting internally for political supremacy. The civil conflict raged between two brothers, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, who were sons of the deceased Queen Salome Alexandra (76-67 BCE).
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General Pompey. Marble bust, c. first century CE. New Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen.
The younger son, Aristobulus II, was High Priest and King of Judea, and a supporter of the Sadducees. Hyrcanus shared his mother’s political and religious views, and supported the policies of the Pharisees. The weak willed Hyrcanus was also influenced by the ambitions of Antipater of Idumea, who became the founder of the Herodian Dynasty and was the father of the future King Herod.
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Pompey was asked to intervene in the conflict. He seized on the opportunity and led his forces to Palestine, meeting no resistance in the process. He liberated Damascus and the many Greek cities known as the Decapolis, all of which were under Hasmonean governance. Pompey eventually made his way to Jerusalem. After several attempts at intervention, Pompey seized political control himself. His only resistance came from the forces of Aristobulus II, which Pompey crushed in Jerusalem. Hyrcanus II and his Idumean cohort Antipater made no attempt to oppose Pompey. The battle claimed 12,000 Jewish lives. Pompey also imposed a heavy tribute on the city, and executed leaders who opposed him. He instituted Hyrcanus II as the High Priest, and together with Antipater, they became Rome’s client rulers. The Romans (later Byzantine empire) would remain in control of that region for approximately the next 600 years.
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Although the Roman conquest of Palestine was successful, the Roman Republic was in turmoil. Civil war ensued and was eventually decided at the famous battle of Actium on the west coast of Greece between the forces of Antony (and Cleopatra VII) and Octavian (born Gaius Octavius Thurinus; sworn as Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus). By 27 BCE, the Republic was replaced by the empire with Augustus at the helm. Although the term “empire” was derived from the Latin imperium, meaning “power”, it developed into territorial, namely provincial, oversight by Roman governors. This new era was marked by political peace, economic prosperity, and cultural expansion.
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Pax Romana is a latin designation for “the peace of Rome.” Although many of the Roman citizens praised Augustus as the bringer of peace; the sentiment was not universal. Many conquered peoples saw it differently.
Nevertheless, the success of Roman expansion and unification can be credited to the Pax Romana, which was achieved by a combination of a strong military and political policies that focused on the unification of the provinces through cultural acceptance, incorporation, promise of security, reciprocity and rewards. The Romans hailed Augustus as the savior of the world, the bringer of peace, and one who brings the “good news” (gospel).
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​Statue of Emperor Augustus of Prima Porta, Vatican Museum, c. 15 CE
These lofty designations attributed to Augustus throughout the empire, particularly on monuments and coins, were appropriated by the early Christians and applied to Jesus. In the Gospel of Luke, for example, Jesus is called “savior” and “bringer of peace.” It is important to keep in mind that these were political titles that had political ramifications. The early Christians wanted to convey that it was not the Roman emperor who brings peace and salvation; it is Jesus Messiah, the true Lord and Son of God. Many scholars have come to see the Christian designations as politically subversive.
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By the beginning of the first century, the empire spanned from Britain to Syria, and from central Europe to North Africa, completely encompassing the Mediterranean Sea and much of the Black Sea. Never before or since has the Mediterranean world been so politically unified.
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Roman Empire in the first century.
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Major Roman Emperors in the First Century
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Augustus (27 BCE to 14 CE)
Tiberius (14-37 CE)
Caligula (37-41 CE)
Claudius (41-54 CE)
Nero (54-68 CE)
Vespasian (69-79 CE)
Titus (79-81 CE)
Domitian (81-96 CE)
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The Herodian Dynasty
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Antipater of Idumea founded the Herodian Dynasty. He had two sons: Herod and Phasael. After Antipater’s death in 43 BCE, his son Herod won Rome’s favour as a successor. When the Parthians invaded Syria and Palestine in 40 BCE, they captured the High Priest Hyrcanus II and killed Phasael. Herod fled to Rome. He made a deal with the Senate that if he defeated the Parthians on their behalf, he would be made king of the Jews. The Senate equipped Herod with a Roman force and, after his successful campaign, he was inaugurated king of the Jews. Due to his Idumean ancestry (biblically a descendent of Esau, an Edomite) many devout Jews resented his rule over them. He tried to appease the Jews by marrying a woman of Hasmonean descent.
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Parthian prisoner of a Roman soldier, Arch of Septimius Severus. Rome.
Herod the Great
Herod the Great followed in the Hellenistic tradition of kings, having the monarchic authority of Alexander the Great and the Hasmoneans. This meant that he was not only a warlord, but also the supreme judge and legal authority. As king, he commanded the army and had control over the socio-economic affairs, but his authority was not extended to religious matters. Only High Priests had ultimate control of Jewish religious life.
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Prutah, used during the time of Herod.
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Herod did not have the reputation of being a benevolent ruler. His atrocities were so well known that they even reached the ears of Augustus, who supposedly remarked that it was better to be Herod’s pig (hus) than his son (huios)—a wordplay in Greek. Even if this anecdote did not originate with Augustus, it accurately represented a common sentiment. For example, Herod ordered the execution of one of his wives and at least three of his sons, because he suspected they sought his throne. His paranoia also led to the execution of forty-five subjects who were accused of plotting a coup. According to the Gospel of Matthew (1:16-18), Herod had ordered the killing of all male children in Bethlehem after learning that a rival king of the Jews was born there. Although there is no other record of this infanticide, it does not seem impossible when one considers Herod’s reputation.
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Ruins of Caesarea Maritima, Israel.
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Despite his paranoia and ruthless practices, Herod was an efficient ruler and a master builder. His most important legacy was his building projects in urban centres. Two of his grandest projects were the city of Caesarea Maritima and the Temple of Jerusalem. When Herod began the reconstruction of Caesarea Maritima (named in honour of Caesar Augustus) in about 22 BCE, it was largely a pagan city. The project was extensive, employing thousands of workers. In addition to the famous harbour that rivalled the one in Athens, the construction included temples, public buildings in grand Roman-style, warehouses, baths, wide roads, and markets. When the harbour was complete, in about 13 BCE, Caesarea became the capital of the province of Judea and the official residence of its prefects (including Pontius Pilate).
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Next to Jerusalem, which had a population of about 200,000, Caesarea was the largest city in Judea, with population of approximately 125,000. In Acts 10, it is the location of Peter’s baptizing of the Centurion Cornelius, his household, and his soldiers. It was also the place of Paul’s lengthy imprisonment (Acts 25). Later, after the Jewish war with Rome (66-70 CE), about 2500 captured revolutionary fighters were executed in Caesarea’s gladiator forum.
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Herod’s expansion of the temple in Jerusalem around 19 BCE was a massive undertaking (Ant. 15.380-390; War 1.401). The old temple, originally constructed under the leadership of Zerubbabel almost 500 years earlier and renovated under the Hasmoneans, served as the platform. It was situated on top of the Temple Mount, which was also known as Mount Moriah. The project employed 10,000 skilled labourers and another 1000 priests as masons and carpenters in order to conform to ritual requirements (Ant. 15.389-390). When the temple was finally completed in 63 CE, it measured 280 meters (south wall) by 485 meters (west wall) by 315 meters (north wall) by 460 meters (east wall), for a total area of 144,000 square meters , which was double the previous size and would have been enormous compared to other temples in the empire.
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Replica of Herod’s Temple, Jerusalem.
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Although Herod boasted that the temple was his gift for the Jews and for the glory of God, there was no mistaking that the temple contributed to the glory of Rome (Ant. 15.382-387). A golden eagle was hung over the Eastern (“Great”) Gate. Some scholars believe that this was to show Rome’s supremacy, but more recent scholarship has argued that, since this was a period of strict opposition to “Graven images,” the statue need not have been Roman to cause controversy. It would have been appropriate, in the eyes of some, to symbolize God’s power with an eagle (as in, for example, iconography pertaining to John’s Gospel) whereas others would have been offended by it. In either case, Josephus reports that, just prior to Herod’s death, a few youths pulled it down (Ant. 17.6.1-3; 151-63; War 1.33.2-4; 649-55). If this was an attempt to symbolize Roman supremacy in the temple, it would not be the last. In 40 CE, the emperor Caligula attempted to install a statue of himself in the temple (Ant. 18.257-62). A few scholars have associated this with the “abomination of desolation” in Jesus’ Olivet Discourse (Mark 13:14).
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Herod died in 4 BCE. The cause of his death is not known, but it had something to do with illness. Common suggestions include dropsy, Fournier’s gangrene, kidney disease, or intestinal cancer. In keeping with his megalomania, he ordered the execution of leading Jewish figures on the day of his own death. Suspecting that the Jews would not mourn for his death, he was assured by this action that there would be mourning among the Jews at the time of his death—even if it were not for him. Though the soldiers reportedly herded the people into the arena for this purpose, the orders were overruled after his death and the slaughter did not occur.
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Herod’s Three Sons
After Herod’s death, the political and economic landscape became more precarious. Since Palestine was divided among Herod’s sons— Archelaus, Philip, and Antipas—and eventually Roman prefects, there was less money in the central coffers for similar grand projects. Building projects in Judea were minimal, despite the fact that some parts of Galilee flourished. Perhaps as another sign of lost glory, none of the three sons received that coveted status of “king”.
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Dedication to Pontius Pilate found at Caesarea Maritima. 1st century CE. The inscription reads, “Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judaea, [erected] a [building dedicated to the emperor] Tiberius.” The brackets indicate missing words.
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Archelaus ruled as a tetrarch—meaning a sovereign of a quarter—over the regions of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea from 4 BCE to 6 CE. He had the reputation of being ruthless and vicious. During his reign, numerous protests erupted, but they were all met with swift and deadly responses. It is reported that, on one occasion, Archelaus crucified 2000 Jewish prisoners. His leadership became so intolerable that some of the elite Jews in Jerusalem sent a secret delegation to Rome, requesting that Archelaus be deposed. Augustus agreed and in 6 CE Archelaus was banished to Gaul (modern France). From that point onward, Roman governors ruled Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. The most well-known of these was Pontius Pilate, who sat in judgment of Jesus. In the book of Acts (23-26), we also read about governors Felix and Festus, who heard Paul’s case. One of the most corrupt governors was Florus, whose raid of the temple treasury was a contributing factor in a Jewish revolt that led to a war with Rome, and to the eventual destruction of the temple in 70 CE.
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Palestine under Herodian rule.
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The second son, Philip, ruled over the northern Hellenistic regions of Gaulanitis, Auranitis, Batanea, Trachonitis, Paneas, and Iturea from 4 BCE to 34 CE. Philip also engaged in building programs like his father (one of his most famous was the city of Caesarea Philippi), but compared to the other two sons, Philip is insignificant for the study of the New Testament.
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The third son, Herod Antipas, was tetrarch over Galilee and Perea from 4 BCE to 39 CE. Of the three sons, he is mentioned the most in the New Testament, since he ruled over Jesus’ native region. In the Gospels, he is simply called “Herod.” As a result of his position, he was not directly under the administration of the Romans and could decide the fate of individuals, such as John the Baptist, without reference to anyone else (Matt 14:10; Luke 3: 20; 9:9; Mark 6:17; Ant. 18:116-19). Although Antipas paid tribute to Rome, the taxes that were collected by the temple establishment went directly to him.
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It is difficult to know how supportive the Galileans were of the temple establishment. Scholars have argued in contrary directions. The saturation of Greco-Roman culture and the number of Gentile residents is hotly debated. Some argue that Galilee was primarily Jewish, whereas others argue that it boasted a large contingency of Roman officials and a substantial Gentile population. We know from the Gospels that Jesus’ ministry was focused on the rural Jewish population, but nothing is said about the ethnic demographic.
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View from the hill of Sepphoris.
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Perhaps Herod’s most notable project was the rebuilding of the fortress city of Sepphoris, which was earlier destroyed by the Romans after a revolt led by Judah ben Hezekiah. It was located in the center of Galilee, about four miles northeast of Nazareth. It was also visible for miles around, because it was built on a hill. It may well be the city to which Jesus refers in the Sermon on the Mount, when he says, “you are the light of the world. A city set on a hill cannot be hidden” (Matt 5:14). Antipas made this city his capital in 4 BC (Ant. 18.27). During Jesus’ day, it was the largest city in Galilee and regarded by Josephus as its jewel. The rebuilding project included lavishly decorated residences for the elite, as well as Antipas’s palace, roads paved with limestone, a 4500-seat theater cut into the hillside, and two markets.
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Tetradrachma. Herod Agrippa with a diadem on the left. Tyche on the right. He was one of a few Jewish rulers to depict his image on a coin.
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After Antipas was deposed in 39 CE, Caligula gave Galilee to Herod’s grandson, Agrippa I, and in 41 CE he was invested as king over the whole territory (i.e. Judaea, later called Palestine) that was formerly controlled by his grandfather, Herod the Great. Agrippa was raised “within the circle of Claudius” in Rome, and was more interested in the political affairs of the Jewish Diaspora than the mundane activities of the remote district of Galilee. He nonetheless took an active role in the politics of the temple and the high priesthood. After Agrippa’s death in 44 CE, Roman governors ruled over the kingdom. Eventually, the kingdom was given to Agrippa’s son, Agrippa II, who was the last of the Herodian kings.
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The Jewish War with Rome
In the early 60s of the first century, uprisings and revolts were becoming commonplace. High tax loads, the corruption of the Roman governors, the distrust of the temple leadership, and the longstanding tensions between Jews and Gentiles brought a number of desperate Jews to the brink. Prominent men among the Jewish peasants arose and were urged to lead attacks against Roman strongholds, its citizens, and the elite. The atmosphere in Judea was tense—and in Galilee it was even worse.
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One of the events that would lead to broad Jewish resistance was the crucifixion of thousands of Jews by the governor of Judea, Gessius Florus. In response, Jews known as “Zealots” infiltrated numerous Roman outposts and garrisons. Two of the installations that were occupied by the Jewish revolutionaries were Jerusalem and the fortress of Masada. In 66 CE, Rome declared all-out war against all Jewish revolutionaries.
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The Jewish revolutionaries were formidable enemies. In one of the earliest battles, the Romans lost approximately 6000 men. The Roman Twelfth Legion was destroyed, which was an utter surprise and embarrassment to the Emperor and Roman administration (War 2.19.9 §555). The Romans, under the leadership of General Vespasian countered with a devastating offensive (60,000 troops), taking Galilee, Samaria, and many parts of Judea by 68 CE.
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Coin from 71 CE commemorating Vespasian’s suppression of the Jewish Revolt. Judaea is represented by a woman weeping under a palm tree. Ashmolean Museum. Oxford.
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In Rome, the populace was not happy with the toll the war was taking. Nero was declared an enemy of the people and he soon committed suicide. Vespasian suspended the war, returned to Rome, and was made Emperor. His son Titus, who was also a General, was appointed to continue the onslaught—but both men knew that a victory was needed before much more time passed. Gathering additional troops in Alexandria, Caesarea, and Syria, Titus marched on Jerusalem and began a long drawn out attack on most of the remaining revolutionaries that were barricaded first in the city, and finally in the temple. After a five-month siege, Jerusalem was razed to the ground and the temple was destroyed.
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Josephus’ account is detailed and graphic. He writes,
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Now although any one would justly lament the destruction of such a work as this was, since it was the most admirable of all the works that we have seen or heard of, both for its curious structure and its magnitude, and also for the vast wealth bestowed upon it, as well as for the glorious reputation it had for its holiness; yet might such a one comfort himself with this thought, that it was fate that decreed it so to be, which is inevitable, both as to living creatures, and as to works and places also. However, one cannot but wonder at the accuracy of this period thereto relating; for the same month and day were now observed, as I said before, wherein the holy house was burnt formerly by the Babylonians. Now the number of years that passed from its first foundation, which was laid by king Solomon, till this its destruction, which happened in the second year of the reign of Vespasian, are collected to be one thousand one hundred and thirty, besides seven months and fifteen days; and from the second building of it, which was done by Haggai, in the second year of Cyrus the king, till its destruction under Vespasian, there were six hundred and thirty-nine years and forty-five days.
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While the holy house was on fire, every thing was plundered that came to hand, and ten thousand of those that were caught were slain; nor was there a commiseration of any age, or any reverence of gravity, but children, and old men, and profane persons, and priests were all slain in the same manner; so that this war went round all sorts of men, and brought them to destruction, and as well those that made supplication for their lives, as those that defended themselves by fighting. The flame was also carried a long way, and made an echo, together with the groans of those that were slain; and because this hill was high, and the works at the temple were very great, one would have thought the whole city had been on fire. Nor can one imagine any thing either greater or more terrible than this noise; for there was at once a shout of the Roman legions, who were marching all together, and a sad clamor of the seditious, who were now surrounded with fire and sword. The people also that were left above were beaten back upon the enemy, and under a great consternation, and made sad moans at the calamity they were under; the multitude also that was in the city joined in this outcry with those that were upon the hill. And besides, many of those that were worn away by the famine, and their mouths almost closed, when they saw the fire of the holy house, they exerted their utmost strength, and brake out into groans and outcries again: Perea did also return the echo, as well as the mountains round about [the city,] and augmented the force of the entire noise. Yet was the misery itself more terrible than this disorder; for one would have thought that the hill itself, on which the temple stood, was seething hot, as full of fire on every part of it, that the blood was larger in quantity than the fire, and those that were slain more in number than those that slew them; for the ground did no where appear visible, for the dead bodies that lay on it; but the soldiers went over heaps of those bodies, as they ran upon such as fled from them. And now it was that the multitude of the robbers were thrust out [of the inner court of the temple by the Romans,] and had much ado to get into the outward court, and from thence into the city, while the remainder of the populace fled into the cloister of that outer court. As for the priests, some of them plucked up from the holy house the spikes that were upon it, with their bases, which were made of lead, and shot them at the Romans instead of darts. But then as they gained nothing by so doing, and as the fire burst out upon them, they retired to the wall that was eight cubits broad, and there they tarried; yet did two of these of eminence among them, who might have saved themselves by going over to the Romans, or have borne up with courage, and taken their fortune with the others, throw themselves into the fire, and were burnt together with the holy house; their names were Meirus the son of Belgas, and Joseph the son of Daleus.
(Jewish War 6.270-277)
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Bust of General and Emperor Titus.
Uffizi Gallery, Florence.
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The last stronghold of the Jewish revolutionaries was the fortress of Masada, high atop a cliff overlooking the Dead Sea some 1300 feet below. When the Romans arrived in 72 CE, they encircled the fortress, which was impenetrable from below. For months, the Romans built a ramp that was an engineering marvel. When the Romans finally penetrated the fortress in the spring of 73 CE, they found that 960 of the 967 inhabitants (men, women, and children) had committed mass suicide shortly before the Romans breached the doors. Josephus records the entire episode in the Jewish War 7.8-10 §252-406.
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The Fortress of Masada (Click the image to view the UNESCO World Heritage Site pages).
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With the destruction of the temple in 70 CE, the cultic rituals rooted in temple worship, especially the sacrifices, ceased. The Pharisees fled north and west, where they would start what would later develop into Rabbinic Judaism. The Sadducees disappeared, probably integrating into Roman urban life of other Jewish sects.
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Some fifty years later, in 132 CE, when Emperor Hadrian erected a temple to the Roman god Jupiter on the site of the destroyed Jewish temple and prohibited the rite of circumcision, the Jews once again revolted. This time, they revolted under the leadership of a would-be messiah named Simon bar Kosiba. The famous Rabbi Akiba renamed him “bar Kokhba”, which in Aramaic means “son of a star,” referring to the messianic prophecy in Num 24:17. The war with the Romans lasted two years, until both Akiba and bar Kokhba were killed in 135 CE.
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In the years that followed, the Romans rebuilt Jerusalem as a Roman city and banned Jews from ever entering it.
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Try the practice quiz for Chapter One
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Bibliography
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Primary Sources
“1 and 2 Maccabees.” The New Oxford Annotated Apocrypha. Edited by B. M. Metzger and R. E. Murphy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. 7 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930–65.
———. The Jewish War. 2 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1927–28.
Whiston, William. Edited and Translated. The Works of Flavius Josephus: Complete and Unabridged. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1987.
Polybius. Histories. Loeb Classical Library, 6 vols. Translated by W. R. Paton. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1922-27.
Tacitus. The Histories. Loeb Classical Library, 2 vols. Translated by C. H. Moore. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1925.
Barrett, C. K. The New Testament Background: Selected Documents. 2d edn. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1989.
Kee, H. C. The Origins of Christianity. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973. Especially pages 10–53.
Yadin, Y. Herod’s Fortress and the Zealots’ Last Stand. New York: Random House, 1967.
Secondary Sources
Alston, R. Aspects of Roman History AD 14-117. London: Routledge, 1998.
An introduction to the early Imperial period which corresponds to the New Testament writings. The first half provides a good introduction to the emperors from Tiberius to Trajan. The secnd half is a well-rounded introduction to Roman society.
Ando, C. Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
A description of the function of Roman political ideology in the unification of Rome and its provinces. This is a more advanced volume written from the perspective of social theorists.
Ben-Sasson, H. H., ed. A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press, 1976.
Very ambitious and highly informative compilation of Jewish history from the second millennium BCE to modern Israel, written by six Hebrew University scholars.
Bosworth, Albert Brian. Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
One of the best accounts of the history written by a leading scholar.
Briant, P. Alexander the Great and his Empire: A Short Introduction. Translated by A. Kuhrt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010.
Excellent insights into the personality of Alexander. Also useful for understanding the Persian opposiion.
Bruce, F. F. New Testament History. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1972.
A standard in the filed of New Testament studies for many years. Still a very useful tool.
Collins, J. J. Between Athens and Jerusalem: Jewish Identity in the Hellenistic Diaspora. 2d edn. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000.
An excellent and highly readable discussion of Judaism in the context of Hellenism.
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Crossan, J. D. and J. L. Reed. In Search of Paul: How Jesus’s Apostle Opposed Rome’s Empire with God’s Kingdom. San Francisco: Harper, 2004.
Steeped in archaeological data, the authors demonstrate how Paul confronted the politics and culture of the empire in his missionary travels. A good example of how Roman background material can inform the reading of the New Testament. Clearly written and contains numerous illustrations and photos.
Goodman, M. Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations. London: Penguin, 2007.
A detailed account of how the relationship between Jews and Romans changed after 70 CE.
Horsley, R. A. Galilee: History, Politics, People. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1995.
A valuable analysis of the political and social dimensions of both rural and urban Galilee. The interpretations of the data raise provocative questions. Excellent summary of prior works on Galilee.
Horsley, R. and J. S. Hanson. Bandits, Prophets and Messiahs: Popular Movements in the Time of Jesus. Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1999.
A highly readable and well documented survey of passive and active revolutionary movements in early Judaism. Provides a valuable context for understanding Jesus’ ministry.
Jeffers, J. S. The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999. Very accessible. Good introduction.
Rhoads, D. M. Israel in Revolution, 6–74 C.E.: A Political History Based on the Writings of Josephus. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976.
An excellent treatment of the Jewish war with Rome.
Rocca, S. Herod’s Judaea: A Mediterranean State in the Classical World. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008.
A valuable look into the relationship between King Herod, who modeled his reign after Alexander the Great and Augustus, and his Jewish subjects in Judaea.
Rostovtzeff, M. I. Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957.
This is still a valuable and comprehensive source for understanding the transformational policies of the empire and their impact on the provinces. It is rich in plates and illustrations.
Schürer, E. The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 b.c.–a.d. 135). Vol. 1. Revised and edited by G. Vermès and F. Millar. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1973.
This is an encyclopedic account of the Jewish history. For advanced readers.
Schiffman, L. From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. Jersey City: Ktav, 1991.
A fine treatment on the writings of the Second Temple Period.
Shipley, G. The Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC. London: Routledge, 2000.
A readable account of the social fabric of Hellenism.
Walbank, F. W. The Hellenistic World. Revised edition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
An excellent introduction to the political history.
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