M01a
Module 01
Political Context
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Introduction to the Section
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Video: Introduction to the section
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The initial step in a historical understanding of the New Testament is an awareness of the complex setting in which it was written. This is often referred to as the “background” or “context” of the New Testament. It allows us to be transported back into a world that is completely different from our own. For the writers of the New Testament, this world was their home, and was therefore assumed in their writings. Since they were writing to contemporary audiences about contemporary issues, using the language, ideas, and symbols that were public knowledge, there was no need to explain the background. For example, there was no necessity to explain to their readers the Roman political system, social customs, family life, economic structures, village life, legal system, religious beliefs and so on. There was even no need to explain what was meant by weighty terms and titles that we encounter in the New Testament, like Son of God, kingdom of God, the Word, and Christ. These were simply an assumed part of the first-century Mediterranean world. In this first section of the book, we attempt to open up that background by focusing on three major segments of it: the political, the social, and the religious.
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Political Context
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Video: Stu Talené
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Introduction
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Every culture is influenced by the memories of its history, whether they are recent memories or those passed down from generation to generation. The past is a shaper and teacher of the present. We are who we are, in many ways, because of what preceded us. The same applies to the New Testament writers. It is impossible to understand their context without some knowledge of the major events that shaped their world and culture. In this chapter we will explore the major political events that shaped and defined the eastern part of the Mediterranean world, especially the lives of the Jewish people in Palestine.
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The wilderness near the Dead Sea
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Our first impression when we begin to read the New Testament is that it is a continuation of the Old Testament. If we begin with Matthew’s Gospel, the first major character that we encounter is John the Baptist. He seems very familiar. He is a prophet, calling for repentance. His clothing resembles that of Elijah. His message echoes Isaiah and Malachi. He is located in the wilderness. But the resemblance is only superficial. The eastern Mediterranean of the first century is a very different place. Its architecture includes cites, buildings, and monuments that glorify Rome and its emperors. Its language is largely Greek, and its culture has undergone Greco-Roman influence. In Jerusalem, we find one of the grandest temples the world had known to that time.
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How did this cradle of Christianity, called “Judaea” and later “Palestine,” undergo such dramatic change? (The term “Palestine” is used for this region of the Middle East, and is not meant to be synonymous with any political entity. Some prefer to call the region “Greater Palestine” to indicate the difference.) How did the province of Judea come to be governed by a Roman Governor? How did Rome come to rule? How did the Herodian dynasty emerge? In answering these and other related questions, we encounter a dramatic and intriguing story of victory, defeat, suffering, strife, and endurance.
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The Pre-Exilic and Exilic Periods
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Assyrian relief (Click the image to see how technology is creating 3D models and in-situ recreations of Assyrian wall reliefs at the British Museum - this will open in a new window)
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Under the reign of King David, all twelve tribes of Israel were united. This period was remembered centuries later, even by first-century Christians, as the “golden age” of the Jews. However, the unified kingdom did not last. It eventually became marred by schism, dividing the ten tribes in the north, which became the kingdom of Israel, and the two tribes of the south, which became the kingdom of Judah.
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Political division often leads to vulnerability. In the eighth century BCE, the Assyrians conquered the northern kingdom of Israel, destroyed its capital city Samaria, and enslaved most of its inhabitants (722-721 BCE). The kingdom of Israel was exiled to Assyria. Those that remained were intermarried with Assyrian colonizers, which contributed to a peaceful conquest. When the Israelites eventually returned back to their homeland, they distanced themselves from those who had remained and intermarried.
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About a century later, the Babylonians rose to power, conquered the Assyrians, and seized control of the eastern Mediterranean region. In the process, under the leadership of King Nebuchadnezzar, they invaded the southern kingdom of Judah and destroyed Jerusalem along with its grand temple (587-586 BCE). Many of the residents were rounded up and forcibly brought to Babylon where they were exiled for the next half-century.
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Ishtar Gate, dedicated to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar.
This was one of several gates leading to inner city of Babylon. It was built during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II in 575 BCE.
Pergamon Museum, Berlin.
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Exile
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The term “exile” conjures up social, political and religious images of judgment, captivity, banishment, displacement, uprootedness, alienation and deportation. In the Old Testament, exile constitutes a major theme, weaving itself through almost every major account from Genesis to Malachi. It is so pervasive that the Old Testament has sometimes been called a metanarrative of exile. Some of the more well known expressions of exile are found in stories such as Adam and Eve’s banishment from the Garden of Eden, Abraham’s journey to the land of Canaan, Joseph’s deportation to Egypt, the Israelite captivity in Egypt, Moses’ wandering in the wilderness, David’s escape from Saul’s paranoia, and Israel’s exile in Assyria and Babylon. The theme of exile, however, does not function in isolation. In the two most important expressions for the study of the New Testament—the stories of Adam and Eve’s banishment and the deportation of the Israelites to Babylon—exile, which is always a result of sin, is accompanied by the hope that God will liberate and restore.
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Masaccio, Expulsion of Adam and Eve. 1426. Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence.
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While the biblical accounts of exile in and of themselves serve as an important background for New Testament studies, it is the retelling and re-experiencing of these accounts among the Jewish people in the Second Temple period that is all the more influential. When the literature of this period is probed for a fulfillment of the promises proclaimed by the exilic prophets, one is hard pressed to show a “post-exilic” return in the grandiose manner often predicted. The hope of the prophets, from Isaiah to Zechariah, of a return from exile was not realized.
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During the Second Temple period, some in Palestine still considered themselves as being in exile because they were under foreign rule—which meant that Yahweh had not yet returned to Zion (Ezra 9:8-9; Neh 9:36). This perception was continually confirmed by the oppressive regimes of the Seleucids and the Romans. The underlying reason why some Jews saw themselves as still remaining in exile was their assumed perennial state of sinfulness (Bar 1:15-3:8;1 En. 89:73-75), a concept which is grounded in the “cursing and blessing” motif in Deuteronomy 27-32. For these Jews, the true return from exile was inseparably bound with the forgiveness of sins. As long as foreign oppressors dominated Israel, the sins were not yet forgiven.
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On the whole, the exilic motif is found dispersed in literature extending from the Babylonian era to the Rabbinic period (Sir 36:8; T. Mos. 10:1-10; 1 Enoch 85-90; T. Levi 16-18; Apoc. Abr. 15-29; T. Jud. 24:1-3; Jub. 1:15-18, 24; T. Naph. 4:2-5; T. Ash. 7; T. Benj. 9; 2 Macc 1:27-29; 1 Esdr 8:73-74; 2 Esdr 9:7).
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Cyrus the Great
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One constant about empires is that they rise and fall. When the Persians grew in military might under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, they advanced eastward toward the Mediterranean and defeated the Babylonians in the 6th century BCE. The Persians allowed the exiled peoples in Babylon to return back to their homelands. Some of the Jewish people returned, but the majority either remained in Babylon or assimilated themselves in regions outside of Palestine. These came to be called “Diaspora” Jews. The story of those who returned is told in Ezra and Nehemiah, with additional references in Ezekiel, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.
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Cyrus Cylinder inscribed with Babylonian cuneiform, recording the account of Persia’s defeat of the Babylonians in 539 BCE.
British Museum, London. c. 539-530 BCE.
Click the image to access a translation of the text.
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Since the exile was explained as divine judgment for Israel’s covenant failings (see Mal 2:11), the Jewish leadership returned to Jerusalem with a profound desire to right the wrongs of the past. Religious zeal at the national level characterized the return. Although many sacred artifacts, like the Ark of the Covenant, were forever lost, some of the old temple objects were brought back to Jerusalem. With a handful of reminders of the temple and fervent zeal, the new leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah inspired the rebuilding of a new temple. The five-year building project was eventually completed in 515 BCE – but little did they know that it would only last six centuries. This period of history, from the rebuilding of the temple to its destruction in 70 CE by the Romans, is often referred to as the “Second Temple Period”. This was a religiously and culturally vibrant time that would prove influential many years later in the development of Christianity.
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The Greek writer Xenophon (428-354 BCE) is often cited as a source for our understanding of Cyrus. However, his work, the Cyropaedia (“Education of Cyrus”), should be regarded as a pseudo-historical account of Cyrus’ life and may not be accurate. Nevertheless, here is an excerpt worth pondering:
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He ruled over these nations, even though they did not speak the same language as he, nor one nation the same as another; for all that, he was able to cover so vast a region with the fear which he inspired, that he struck all men with terror and no one tried to withstand him; and he was able to awaken in all so lively a desire to please him, that they always wished to be guided by his will. Moreover, the tribes that he brought into subjection to himself were so many that it is a difficult matter even to travel to them all, in whatever direction one begin one's journey from the palace, whether toward the east or the west, toward the north or the south
(Cyropaedia 1.1.5).
The Hellenistic Period
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Video: Stu Talené
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The term “Hellenistic” simply means “Greek.” The word comes from Hellas, which was the Greek word for Greece. In the ancient world, Hellas was associated with political, religious, and social reform—at times forced. Subdued peoples were expected to govern themselves according to Greek polity and philosophy. They were also expected to speak the language. Because of Alexander the Great, Greek became the common language for trade and diplomacy around the eastern Mediterranean basin. Everyone from the poorest of the poor to the richest of the rich learned Greek. Eventually, the use of Greek spread throughout the Mediterranean.
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Alexander the Great
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One of the most celebrated figures in the history of Western civilization is Alexander of Macedon, most commonly known as Alexander the Great. His “greatness” has not been attributed to him for his extraordinary military battles and conquests only, but also for his export of Hellenistic culture. Hellenism had been slowly migrating through trade and colonization, but Alexander’s conquests accelerated the expansion considerably. Alexander was well educated, having studied under Aristotle, and he was ambitious.
A bust of Alexander the Great (Click the image to learn more about Alexander and the Macedonians)
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King Philip, Alexander’s father, was a charismatic leader who asserted Macedonian hegemony by defeating the southern cities of Greece. Alexander’s own dream, when he ascended to the throne of Macedon, was the Persian territories to the east, such as Anatolia (Asia Minor). He would go on to surpass his dream.
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Alexander’s campaign began in the 4th century BCE, when he led his forces from Macedonia eastward. His first major battle (of three) against the Persians took place at the Granicus River in 334 BCE. This important victory led to the collapse of Asia Minor. Soon after, he moved south, freeing Greek cities that were along the Aegean Sea.
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As the small, but mobile Macedonian force of 30,000 strong moved east, the Persian king, Darius III, knew he had to confront Alexander immediately. Darius raised an army of 100,000 and met Alexander’s forces at the Plains of Issus in 333 BCE. The Persian army’s superior size proved to be a liability. It was too large for the battlefield, which was constricted by mountains on one side and the Mediterranean on the other, allowing Darius’ lines to be quickly breached by Alexander’s swift, armored cavalry. Darius fled and the battle belonged to the Macedonians.
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Floor mosaic of the battle of Issus, between Alexander (on far left) and Darius III (central figure on right) found in the House of the Faun, Pompeii. 1st century CE.
National Archaeological Museum, Naples.
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Alexander continued to advance southward. On his way to Egypt, he conquered the region of Judaea. In Egypt, he renamed its major city after himself: “Alexandria”. When Egypt was subdued in 332 BCE, he continued his advance to the Euphrates and followed its course until he entered Mesopotamia. North of Babylon, Darius held a massive army of 200,000 in a vast open area called the Plain of Gaugamela. Once again, Darius assumed that the vast size of his army would overwhelm and obliterate the smaller Macedonian force. Once again, Darius miscalculated. Alexander attacked the center of the Persian forces, which was an unconventional tactic, but nonetheless the right one for that day. Darius fled and two years later was found dead.
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Alexander plundered the Persian treasuries, freeing its cities (such as Babylon). He soon also conquered the great Persian capital of Persepolis, which he later burned to the ground. He continued to move east toward India, where he defeated the Indian king Porus. Up to this point, his forces had crossed over 11,000 miles in eight years of constant campaigns, which was unprecedented in the history of warfare. In western India, his commanders compelled Alexander to turn the army around – they had had enough. After two years, they made their way back to Babylon, which Alexander wanted to make as his capital. He died of a severe fever on his way back to Babylon in 323 BCE. He was a month shy of his 33rd birthday.
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The influence of Alexander was enormous. In the wake of the campaigns, the Greeks founded and built many cities and modeled them after their own Grecian style. Twenty of these cities bore his name, but none compared with Alexandria in Egypt, which became a leading city in the ancient world. The region of Palestine was not immune from the building program. One of these Grecian cities was Sepphoris, only a short distance from Jesus’ hometown of Nazareth. The forging of a huge empire led to a universal monetary currency and common language, which accelerated trade and the exchange of ideas. Greek culture would dominate the eastern Mediterranean for the next nine hundred years until the coming of Islam in the seventh century. The mark that Alexander’s conquests left upon the world is profound.
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Alexander’s empire at the time of his death.
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The Ptolemies and Seleucids
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Though Alexander conquered vast regions, built magnificent cities, and profoundly influenced the expansion of Greek culture (Hellenism), he did not appear to have a plan of succession. After his death, four prominent generals divided the empire among themselves. Two of these generals, Ptolemy I Soter and Seleucus I Nicator, forged kingdoms that became very influential in the political and religious identity of the Jewish people in Palestine. By the beginning of the first century CE, many of the political and religious ideas, groups, and institutions that emerged under Alexander’s successors had already been woven into the social fabric of Judaism.
A bust of General Ptolemy I, 3rd century BCE.
Louvre Museum, Paris.
For example, it was during this post-Alexander period when we see the rise of groups like the Pharisees and Sadducees. We also see a significant development of religious ideas like heaven, hell, angels, and resurrection.
General Ptolemy governed the regions that were southwest of Palestine, primarily Egypt, with Alexandria serving as the capital. He established the Ptolemaic Empire or Dynasty, which would endure under a succession of rulers (called the Ptolemies) until the reign of Cleopatra in the latter half of the first century BCE when the Romans finally seized control of Egypt.
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General Seleucus carved out the region to the north and northeast of Palestine, which came to be known as the Seleucid (or Syrian) Empire or Dynasty, with its capital situated in Antioch of Syria. The succession of rulers, who often took on the name Seleucus or Antiochus (in honour of the capital, Antioch), eventually came to an end in 64 BCE, when the Roman General Pompey defeated Antiochus XIII.
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Wedged in between these two great empires was the land of Palestine, which was prized for its coastline, agriculture, and trade route that connected Asia Minor and Egypt. The two empires, which had a disdain for each other, also vied for control of Palestine. This animosity led to countless battles, leaving the residents of Palestine as the unfortunate victims of war.
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The Ptolemaic Empire at its height in 270 BCE.
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The Ptolemies
After several battles, Palestine fell under the control of the Ptolemies. Although there were sporadic battles with the Seleucids, the Ptolemies ruled Palestine for over 120 years (320-198 BCE). For the most part, life in Palestine under Ptolemaic rule was peaceful. The Jews were permitted to freely practice their faith in public. The peace was also maintained politically through the establishment of a temple-state around Jerusalem. This region was governed by priests, who were responsible for collecting taxes on behalf of the local Ptolemaic governor.
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During this period, many Jews resided outside of Palestine. A considerable number migrated to cities like Alexandria where they established permanent Jewish communities. Eventually, Jews were integrated into the culture and took on many of its attributes, such as fashion and the common use of the Greek language. As a result of the integration over one or two generations, the Hebrew Scriptures were no longer used in synagogues outside Jerusalem. The Hebrew language fell into disuse in favour of Greek. According to the ancient Letter of Aristeas, written probably in the second century BCE, the chief librarian of Alexandria urged the King of Egypt, Ptolemy II Philadelphus (who ruled 281-246 BCE) to have the Hebrew Torah translated into Greek. The librarian argued that such a translation would enhance the collection of the library. When the King agreed, the high priest in Jerusalem chose seventy-two men, six from each of the twelve tribes, who were fluent in both Hebrew and Greek.
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Reconstruction of the Alexandrian Library, which was one of the most significant libraries from the 3rd century BCE to the time of its destruction in the Roman period.
If you look closely, you'll notice that the texture on the walls is actually thousands of rolled scrolls - the contemporary equivalent of books.
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According to Aristeas, when the translators arrived in Alexandria in about 250 BCE, the King posed numerous questions to them. Being astounded at their wise responses, he commissioned them to translate. The seventy-two translators emerged in seventy-two days. The new translation was so revered that the Jews of Alexandria placed a curse on anyone who attempted to alter it. For Greek-speaking Jews and Christians in the first century, this translation was a standard text, and would continue to be so in the Christian church for centuries to come. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, it continues to be the authoritative version of the Old Testament. Today, scholars refer to it as the Septuagint, which means 70 (abbreviated as LXX), reflecting (in rounded terms) the number of translators and the number of days it took to complete the translation.
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The Seleucids
After a century of conflicts with the Ptolemies, the Seleucids, under the rule Antiochus III, finally gained control of Palestine in 198 BCE. For the average Jew, the tranquility of daily life and the freedom of religious expression and worship would soon turn to disaster and despair.
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Replica of 3rd century BCE bust of Antiochus lll, Musée du Louvre, Paris.
When Antiochus III seized control, the Jewish leadership was split into two factions: (1) the house of Onias, which controlled the office of the high priest and endorsed the policies of the former overlords, and (2) the house of Tobias which endorsed the Seluecids. When Antiochus IV Epiphanes succeeded his father (175-163 BCE), he replaced the pro-Ptolemaic High Priest Onias III with Onias’ brother Jason, who supported the Seleucids. For the Jews of that day, the high priest occupied the most important political and religious office. Under Jason, Jerusalem began to be transformed into a Greek city.
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The reaction among the Jews was mixed. Those who embraced it, tended to be among the upper class. They welcomed the sophisticated Hellenistic ideas, social practices, entertainment, and building programs. They tended to immerse themselves into the culture, attending Greek theaters, wearing Greek fashion, and changing their Semitic (Jewish) names into Greek names (as was the case with the High Priest – Jason).
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A plate featuring a nude athlete in Greek style.
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One of the most controversial building projects was the construction of a gymnasium and an attached racetrack. Since athletes often competed in the nude, some of the Jewish participants even went through a surgical procedure to reverse their circumcision so they could look like their Greek counterparts. Moreover, celebrated athletic events were often inaugurated by paying homage to the Greek pantheon.
Many Jews resisted the Hellenistic transformation of both their city and the broader culture. A more radical group of Jewish opponents, emerging out of the peasant class, were the Hasidim (or Hasideans), meaning “the pious ones.” This group consisted of devout Jews who were passionate adherents to the Law of Moses. They feared that on almost every level of society, their Jewish identity was being eroded and threatened. They vehemently opposed the building of the gymnasium and racetrack, because they regarded public nudity, the reversal of circumcision, and the invocation of the Greek gods to be a gross violation of the Abrahamic covenant between God and his people. In a matter of decades, the Hasidim would branch off into two major political groups: the Pharisees and the Essenes.
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Bust of Antiochus IV 'Epiphanes' (Click the image to learn more from Encyclopedia Britannica)
Under Antiochus IV, the policy was to assimilate Jews into Greek culture and once and for all put an end to the Jewish religion. Though Antiochus was nicknamed Epiphanes (which means “the manifest one” implying a manifestation of God), the Jews, being fond of wordplay, nicknamed him Epimanes (which means “the insane one”). The nickname was well deserved. In the planning stages of a major invasion of Egypt, Antiochus’s officials realized that the cost would exceed their resources. One of the solutions, suggested by a Hellenistic Jew named Menelaus, was to raise taxes for all residents in Palestine. Menelaus volunteered to organize the drive for a price: that he be made High Priest in Jerusalem. Antiochus consented and deposed his previous appointee, Jason.
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This deposition of Jason, in effect, broke the priestly line of succession that supposedly began with Aaron, the brother of Moses. Again, for pious Jews, this was a gross violation of their sacred tradition, escalating not only the anger toward the Seleucids, but also the strife between the temple establishment and the common people.
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Despite some initial successes, Antiochus’ invasion of Egypt failed. He did not appropriately account for the growing political influence of Rome. By this time Rome had become the dominant power in the Mediterranean and had exerted dominion over Asia Minor. Since Rome was very protective of the vast grain supply in Egypt, it placed considerable pressure on Antiochus to abandon his plans.
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Tetradrachm depicting Antiochus IV on the left and Zeus on the right, with the caption “King Antiochus, manifestation of God.”
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Back in Palestine, a rumor reached the ears of the former High Priest Jason that Antiochus had died in Egypt. Seeing a chance to retake his position in Jerusalem, he and his supporters deposed Menelaus. Antiochus, however, was not dead. When he returned back to Palestine, with a wounded ego, he interpreted the deposition of Menelaus as an act of rebellion. In response, Antiochus sent an army to hunt down and kill all who were involved in the “rebellion” and reinstated Menelaus as the High Priest. Antiochus’ anger toward the Jews escalated. His forces ransacked the temple and slaughtered some of the inhabitants of Jerusalem. This was only the beginning of the devastation that was to befall devout Jews.
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By 168 BCE, Antiochus had sacked the city of Jerusalem, torn down its walls, and looted the temple treasury. He instituted decrees prohibiting temple festivals, circumcision, and possession of the scriptures. Violations of these prohibitions were punishable by death. The worship of Greek gods became mandatory and soon festivals for the god Dionysius were commonplace in Jerusalem’s streets. In the winter of 167 BCE the temple became a pagan site where the worship of Zeus was practiced. For the next three years, pigs, which were considered unclean animals by Jews, were sacrificed by the Seleucids on Israel’s holiest altar. For devout Jews, this was the ultimate desecration (1 Macc. 1:41–63).
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The Hasmonean Period
In 167 BCE, the previously unknown village of Modin, located about 35km northwest of Jerusalem, became the site that would forever be associated with one of the most astounding revolts in Jewish history. It began with a routine visit by a royal official of Antiochus IV, who demanded the leading priest of the village to offer a sacrifice to Zeus on the Jewish altar. This was a routine method of subjugation and was a show of the supremacy of Antiochus.
Coin from the Hasmonean Period depicting an anchor. (Click the image for more information on the Hasmonean Dynasty from Encyclopedia Britannica.)
The results in this village, however, were far from routine. When the crowd was gathered around the village altar, Mattathias, the senior priest, was commanded to sacrifice a sow. He refused because he could not break the Mosaic Law. When another Jew was chosen and willingly came forward to slay the animal, Mattathias was enraged. He drew his sword and killed his fellow Jew. He also killed Antiochus’ official, and demolished the altar. Then he fled to the mountains along with his sons and a number of followers. This revolutionary act would lead to the famous Maccabean Revolt, so named after Mattathias’ son and successor, Judas who was nicknamed “Maccabeus”, which means “the hammerer”. It is also known as the Hasmonean Revolt, named after the family Hasmon to which Mattathias, Judas, and the other sons belonged.
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Judas led a highly effective guerrilla war against the Seleucids, usually inflicting heavy damage on the forces in the mountain passes where the usually effective phalanx formation of the Greeks could not be utilized. By 165 BCE, the Maccabean revolutionaries cleared their way to the temple mount. They reclaimed their sacred site, dismantled the pagan artifacts and altar, and rededicated the temple for the Jews. The celebration of the temple’s rededication is known as Hanukkah (“Festival of Lights” in Josephus Ant. 12.7.7 and “Feast of Dedication” in John 10:22) and has been annually celebrated by Jews on the 25th day of Kislev (mid December).
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At Hanukkah, the Menorah (branched candelabra) has been annually lit for over two thousand years. This is a Roman mosaic from Tunis, 3rd-5th century CE. Brooklyn Museum.
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After Judas was killed in battle in 160 BCE, his brothers Jonathan and then Simon succeeded him. When Jonathan became High Priest, he had the walls of Jerusalem rebuilt along with many of the other buildings that were leveled during the war.
The military strategy implemented by Mattathias and Judas culminated in victory over the Seleucids. But it was not the only factor. During the campaign against the Maccabees, Antiochus was also battling the Parthians to the east. Antiochus’ sudden death in 164 BCE, the fractured pressure on the army, and internal civil conflicts eventually led to the increasing instability of Seleucid control. By 142 BCE, the Maccabean revolutionaries established political independence.
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Simon was credited with winning independence from the Seleucids. He renewed the treaty with Rome, originally made by his brother Judas. As the proclaimed High Priest and commander of the Jews, Simon officially began to consolidate religious, military, and political authority within the institution of a Jewish state. The popular assemblies in Jerusalem declared Simon the “High Priest forever until a trustworthy prophet should arise” (1 Macc 14:41).
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The excitement of victory against the Seleucids and the exhilaration of achieving political independence did not last. Peace was short lived, but this time the instability and conflict developed from within. Internal strife, caused by greed and ambition, would come to characterize the new nation. The Hasmonean political agendas alienated many of their former supporters. Among those supporters were the pious Hasidim, who would later split into the Essenes and the Pharisees.
The Hasidim were at odds, religiously and politically, with the aristocratic and politically minded supporters of the Hasmonean priest-kings. It is believed that the Sadducees emerged out of this aristocracy. The Hasidim primarily held influence throughout the rural regions of Palestine, and were constant critics of the Hasmonean autocracy. Tensions were especially high during the reign of the Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE), who is said to have violently suppressed numerous rebellions—at one time crucifying approximately 800 Hasidim. Finally, in 63 BCE, political independence gave way to Roman control. In the end, Jewish political independence, which would not again be established until 1948, lasted for only 80 years.
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